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Educating the Student Body
during physical education in schools are needed, especially for elemen-
tary and middle schools. Research also is needed to examine the effects of 
school-based physical activity interventions and physical education poli-
cies on physical activity and fitness levels across subgroups based on race/
ethnicity, immigrant status, gender, and socioeconomic status. 
Recess
Recess, as discussed in detail in Chapter 6, is a regularly scheduled 
break in the school day for unstructured play. The physical activity objec-
tives for Healthy People 2020 (HHS, 2012) include increasing the number 
of states and school districts that require regularly scheduled recess in 
elementary schools and the proportion of school districts that require or 
recommend an appropriate length of time (20 minutes) for recess in elemen-
tary schools. The importance of providing recess during the school day is 
highlighted in a recent policy statement issued by the American Academy of 
Pediatrics (AAP) titled “The Crucial Role of Recess in School” (AAP, 2013).
A review by Salmon and colleagues
(2007) found that school-based 
interventions focused on activity breaks such as recess were the most effec-
tive way to increase physical activity levels among youth. Thus, requiring 
and implementing daily recess is one of the most promising policies for 
increasing physical activity during the school day. 
Status and Trends
Only 6 percent (3) of states have a strong law on recess—one that 
requires 20 minutes of recess daily. An additional 11 percent (5) of states 
have a weak law—one that suggests 20 minutes or requires fewer minutes 
of daily recess than the nationally recommended 20 minutes (Slater et 
al., 2012). At the local level, national data show that many students do 
not attend schools that meet the national recommendations for recess. As 
noted in Chapter 6, since the No Child Left Behind Act became law in 
2001, nearly 40 percent of U.S. school districts have reduced or eliminated 
recess to free up time for core academic subjects (Zygmunt-Fillwalk and 
Bilello, 2005; Center for Public Education, 2008; McKenzie and Kahan, 
2008; RWJF, 2010; Anderson et al., 2011; Basch, 2011). However, the 
Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of 2004 requires all school 
districts to develop local school wellness policies by the 2006-2007 school 
year. These policies were to “include goals for nutrition education, physi-
cal activity and other school-based activities that are designed to promote 
student wellness in a manner that the local educational agency determines is 
appropriate (Child Nutrition and WIC Reathorization Act of 2004, Public 
Law 108-265, Section 204).” The act outlines specific nutrition-related 

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Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
The Effectiveness of Physical Activity and Physical Education Policies and Programs
 
327
goals but includes no required physical activity–related components, such 
as physical education or recess. Although its language allows school dis-
tricts the flexibility to develop individualized physical activity programs 
that accord with their existing schedules, it provides no direction or guid-
ance for this wellness policy component.
The Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 expands the scope of local 
wellness policies. Physical education teachers can now participate in policy 
development, but specific physical activity requirements are still lacking. 
Despite this lack of specificity regarding physical activity requirements, a 
recent survey of a nationally representative sample of elementary school 
administrators revealed that 70 percent of respondents’ schools provide at 
least 20 minutes of recess daily, although the schools with predominantly 
minority or low-income students are significantly less likely to do so (Slater 
et al., 2012). In addition, many local wellness policies address using or 
withholding physical activity, such as recess, as a punishment. During the 
2008-2009 school year, 21 percent of elementary school districts prohibited 
this practice (Chriqui et al., 2010).
Impact on Physical Activity 
Policies requiring daily recess breaks during the school day could both 
increase physical activity levels and reduce sedentary behavior. As noted in 
Chapter 2, no existing surveillance system tracks physical activity levels dur-
ing recess over time. Nonetheless, numerous studies have shown a positive 
association between participating in recess and physical activity (Ridgers et 
al., 2005; Beighle et al., 2006; Tudor-Locke et al., 2006; Erwin et al., 2012). 
More specifically, Ridgers and colleagues
(2005) found that children may 
accumulate up to 25 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical 
activity during recess, and recess also can account for 14-44 percent of total 
school-day steps during school hours (Beighle et al., 2006; Tudor-Locke et 
al., 2006; Erwin et al., 2012). Howe and colleagues
(2012) found a nearly 54 
percent relative increase in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activ-
ity postintervention among youth participating in a 30-minute structured 
recess. In a recent review, Bassett and colleagues
(2013) found that youth 
accumulate an average of 7 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity 
physical activity during a 15-minute recess period and that infrastructure 
improvements, such as providing playground equipment, blacktop games, 
or loose equipment, could increase that time to an average of 12 minutes. 
Other studies also have found that environmental changes at the school 
level can facilitate greater physical activity during recess. Access to play 
equipment, such as balls and jump ropes (Zask et al., 2001; Verstraete 
et al., 2006; Parrish et al., 2009; Willenberg et al., 2010), and low-cost 
environmental changes to blacktops (e.g., painted markings) (Stratton 

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Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
328