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Educating the Student Body
room cleaning. For parents the average cost for after-school programs is
$67.00 per week, a $20.00 increase over the past 5 years (Afterschool
Alliance, 2009). Thus, public funds are needed to defray some of these costs
to schools and families.
In addition, the inability of an after-school program to provide trans-
portation home is a major barrier to participation for a large number of
students. Programs have an advantage in recruiting participants when
operating in schools where a majority of the students live within safe walk-
ing distance (in particular, urban city schools) (Grossman et al., 2001). For
children not living within walking distance of school, busing is an alterna-
tive, but the limited supply of buses and drivers, as well as their cost, is a
major barrier. There are substantial negative consequences of inadequate
transportation. Youth who live beyond walking distance from their school
and who cannot be picked up by a parent or adult at the designated time are
unable to participate in programs. For schools that can provide busing for
after-school programs, the number of seats available on those buses limits
the number of children who can participate. Even when children live within
walking distance of their school, many parents feel uncomfortable about
their child walking home alone in the dark at 5:00 or 6:00 PM. School
districts have struggled with easing this transportation problem. Money has
been unavailable in schools’ budgets, or there have been restrictions on how
transit money can be spent. For example, some school districts give trans-
portation funding only to academic programs, and after-school programs
are considered nonacademic.
Staff training is another concern for after-school programs. If training
does occur, it is often in house. Existing training programs tend to focus on
games and to use prepackaged materials, and they fail to address promotion
of physical activity (Ajja et al., 2012; Weaver et al., 2012).
Differences in Opportunities in After-School Programs
In addition to providing children with enrichment opportunities,
a key factor behind the policy interest in after-school programs is the
increasing need for child care. Almost all adults agree that elementary
school children need adult supervision. Young people aged 10-14 are often
seen as old enough to stay on their own for short periods of time, but they
are also old enough to get into serious trouble. Unfortunately, these older
children are much less likely to participate in supervised after-school pro-
grams, whether the programs take place at youth-serving organizations or
at school. It is easier to recruit elementary school children to these programs
than middle and high school students, who tend to have busier schedules,
increased responsibilities, and greater freedom (Grossman et al., 2001).
Grossman and colleagues also found that 30 percent of enrollees in after-
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
Approaches to Physical Activity in Schools
301
school programs were in 3rd grade or lower, 45 percent were in 4th through
6th grades, 23 percent were in 7th and 8th grades, and only 2 percent were
in 9th grade or higher. Additionally, elementary-age children who enrolled
attended more frequently than older youth.
SUMMARY
In addition to physical education, schools can offer students non-
instructional opportunities to engage in beneficial physical activity before,
during, or after the school day. These opportunities take various forms,
such as interscholastic sports teams, intramural sport clubs, recess, and in-
class physical activity breaks. Interscholastic sports provide opportunities
for students with athletic talent. But budgetary constraints, team-cut poli-
cies, transportation, lack of facilities, and pay-to-play policies and practices
in many high schools may limit participation. Intramural sports clubs in
middle and high schools are a viable way for the majority of children to
engage in in-school or after-school physical activities. Research data con-
sistently show, however, that although these programs can serve a large
number of children, not every child will opt to participate or be able to
find transportation home after an activity. Recess and classroom physical
activity breaks have become valuable opportunities for elementary school
students to be active during the school day. Their value in middle and high
schools is questionable when they are combined with lunch, and at the
secondary level classroom activity breaks are lost to valuable and limited
academic time. Evidence supporting the integration of physical activity
into academic lessons does exist but only for elementary schools. Given the
nature of institutionalized education and its emphasis on academic achieve-
ment, it is unclear that the approach will be embraced by school officials
and most classroom teachers.
One consensus from the literature is that, to take advantage of and
enhance the many opportunities for physical activity outside of physical
education, policy makers and practitioners must acknowledge the anchor
function of physical education (National Physical Activity Plan, 2010).
Curriculum time is insufficient for all of the recommended 60 minutes or
more of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity to take place dur-
ing physical education, so the activity in which children engage throughout
the school day is important. Therefore, a holistic, comprehensive approach
is increasingly being advocated to promote physical activity in schools.
School environments encourage more physical activity, both before and
after school, if they include well-designed playgrounds; open spaces;
and facilities and equipment that are available, accessible, and inviting to
children. AAHPERD’s CSPAP program can serve as an example. It provides
opportunities anchored in the knowledge and skills learned in physical
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
302
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