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Educating the Student Body
TAbLE 6-3 Interscholastic Sports Choices and Percentage of Middle and
High Schools Offering Them
Sport
Middle Schools
(percent)
High Schools
(percent)
Team Sports
Baseball
35.7
79.6
Basketball
76.4
90.9
Cheerleading
50.9
77.3
Field hockey
7.1
10.2
Football
53.0
71.0
Ice hockey
2.4
14.3
Lacrosse
2.1
3.8
Soccer
32.3
60.3
Softball
45.2
77.9
Volleyball
57.3
71.4
Water polo
0.5
2.6
Individual Sports
Badminton
4.2
7.2
Bowling
3.0
17.2
Cross-country running
38.9
68.4
Cross-country skiing
3.2
5.9
Golf
22.1
68.4
Gymnastics
5.2
10.1
Riflery
2.1
3.8
Swimming
6.9
37.8
Tennis
12.6
53.0
Track and field
52.1
73.2
Weight lifting
9.9
23.8
Wrestling
28.7
49.6
SOURCE: Adapted from Lee et al., 2007.
schools implemented various forms of team-cut policies for participation
in interscholastic sports. The practice requires students to meet minimum
performance qualifications before joining a school-sponsored sports team.
Such policies include maintaining a designated grade point average, meet-
ing daily attendance requirements, and adhering to individual school dis-
trict code-of-conduct policies. One might speculate that such policies may
prohibit interscholastic sports from becoming a viable means of promoting
maximum student participation in sports and other physical activity.
In summary, trends in participation in sports are encouraging.
Compared with physical education, however, it is difficult to expect every
child to participate in sports. Although the available data indicate a nearly
60 percent participation rate, the data do not provide specific information
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
Approaches to Physical Activity in Schools
283
about the participants. In addition, studies and national surveys have not
provided useful information about those children who do not participate in
sports, who may be in the greatest need of physical activity. Although the
opportunity for physical activity through participation in interscholastic
and/or intramural sports does exist in most secondary schools, the extent
to which participation in sports contributes to children’s health and positive
behavior change for active living is unclear.
Barriers to Participation in Sports
Although the literature documents the benefits of participating in high
school sports in such areas as academic achievement, attendance, and
self-esteem, opportunities for participation in sports have not escaped the
effects of the budget cuts that have plagued education over the past several
years (Colabianchi et al., 2012).
In addition, interscholastic sports have been dominated by a competi-
tive sports model (Lee et al., 2007), which may fail to engage and support
all students. Policies encouraging and funding intramural sports, which are
usually more inclusive and less competitive, can increase student participa-
tion in sports. The CDC recommends inclusive policies and programs as a
strategy for enabling students to meet the 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines
(HHS, 2008).
According to the Government Accountability Office (GAO) (2012)
report K-12 Physical Education: School-Based Physical Education and
Sports Programs, school district officials assert that budget cuts have
impacted predominantly transportation and facilities, both critical to after-
school sports programs (GAO, 2012). According to data from the School
Health Policies and Practices Study (SHPPS) (2006) (Lee et al., 2007), an
estimated 29 percent of schools that offered interscholastic sports in 2006
also provided transportation home for participating students, up from
21 percent in 2000. Transportation costs, a large part of overall school
athletic budgets, are impacted not only by the need to transport students
to practice facilities and competition venues and then home but also by
increases in fuel prices and maintenance costs.
Facilities and equipment are another recognized barrier to participa-
tion. Budget cuts have hindered school districts from building new facilities
or upgrading existing ones. Where facility and land limitations prevail,
school districts have resorted to developing partnerships and contractual
agreements with local community recreation centers or universities to use
their facilities for various sports program. A lack of funding for sports
equipment has further reduced the number of participating students, as the
number of uniforms available per sport has caused the selection process to
become more stringent. Colabianchi and colleagues (2012) also conclude
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
284
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