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T
A
b
LE 5-6
 Perceived Barriers to Student Participation in Physical Education and Physical Activity in V
ictorian State 
Secondary Schools: Physical Education T
eachers’ Ranking (from most [“5”] to least [“1”] influential) 
Barriers INSIDE school (
N
= 73)
Ranking
a
Influential Barrier
Percent of Respondents 
Ranking Barrier in Their 
Top 5
Barrier
Category
b
MOST LEAST
5
4
3
2
1
Crowded curriculum
1
21
6
6
5
5
59
I
Lack of facilities
2
10
7
4
2
4
37
I
Difficulty engaging students
3
9
10
11
11
8
67
T
Students have low level of interest in PE
c
and P
A
d
4
7
11
5
5
5
45
S
Peer pressure
5
5
7
9
13
11
62
S
PE
c
/sport
e
not priorities in the school
5
5
6
5
3
9
38
I
Focus on too many traditional sports
6
4
1
4
5
1
21
I
Past negative experiences with PE
c
7
3
6
6
6
5
37
S
Large class sizes
8
2
6
7
5
2
30
I
The school environment does not encourage P
A
d
9
2
0
0
0
3
6
I
Cost of subject
10
1
5
8
5
3
30
I
Staff use outdated teaching methods
11
1
2
2
2
2
12
T
PE
c
/sport
e
staff provide limited activity time
12
1
2
1
1
2
10
T
Semesterisation of units
13
1
1
0
1
3
8
I
Outdated curriculum
14
1
0
0
1
2
5
I
Lack of equipment
15
0
3
4
5
5
23
I
NOTE: 
a
Ranking = based on most frequently ranked as number 1 barrier; 
b
I = institutional barrier
, T = teacher
-related barrier
, S = student-related 
barrier; 
c
PE = physical education; 
d
PA = physical activity; 
e
Sport = sport education.
SOURCE: Jenkinson and Benson, 2010.

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Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
244
 
Educating the Student Body
Staffing
As noted earlier in this chapter, physical education is short staffed. 
State mandates have placed pressure on schools to preserve instructional 
resources for the high-stakes tested core subject areas at the expense of non-
core subjects. For example, when a state mandates a maximum class size 
of 20 students per teacher in all core subjects, with noncompliance result-
ing in some form of penalty, an elementary school with an average of 25 
students per teacher is forced to hire additional teachers in these subjects to 
meet the state mandate. Consequently, the school must shrink its teaching 
force in noncore subjects, such as physical education, to balance its bud-
get. If noncore classes are to be preserved, their class sizes must increase, 
with fewer teachers serving more students. As a result, it becomes difficult 
to implement a quality program, and physical education teachers perceive 
their programs as being undervalued.
Funding
According to the Government Accountability Office report K-12 
Education: School-Based Physical Education and Sports Programs (GAO, 
2012), school officials cite budget cuts and inadequate facilities as major 
challenges to providing physical education opportunities for students. 
Budget cuts have affected schools’ ability to hire physical education teach-
ers, maintain appropriate class sizes, and purchase sufficient equipment. 
As noted earlier, lack of equipment and limited access to facilities are cited 
as top barriers in the study by Jenkinson and Benson (2010) (see Tables 
5-5 and 5-6). Limited budgets have a negative impact on a school’s ability 
to purchase enough physical education equipment to engage all students 
in increasingly large class sizes and cause physical education teachers to 
abandon quality evidence-based physical education programs and resort 
to large-group games and “throw out the ball” activities. Students dis-
engaged as a result of such practices may prefer sedentary activities to more 
active lifestyles. A NASPE (2009a) survey found that the median physical 
education budget for physical education programs nationally was $764 per 
school ($460 per elementary school, $900 per middle school, and $1,370 
per high school).
Solutions for Overcoming the barriers
For many adolescents who have few opportunities to be active outside 
of the school day, quality physical education becomes the only option for 
physical activity. For students in large urban communities, physical educa-
tion classes serve as a safe environment in which to be physically active 
under adult supervision in a structured environment. For students with dis-

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Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
Approaches to Physical Education in Schools
 
245
abilities in particular, physical education classes are one of the only outlets 
for physical activity. For these reasons, it is crucial to overcome the above 
barriers to quality physical education. Some school districts have found 
ways to do so and provide robust physical education programs.
The barrier of limited time during the school day can be overcome 
through creative scheduling that makes use of every minute of the day in 
a constructive manner. For example, Miami-Dade County Public Schools 
is the fourth largest school district in the United States, in a large urban 
minority-majority community with large budgetary shortfalls and attention 
in schools being diverted to academic requirements. Yet the district has 
always had daily physical education in its elementary schools taught by 
a certified physical education teacher. This is accomplished by scheduling 
physical education during the classroom teacher’s planning time. In addi-
tion, students receive school board–mandated recess for either 20 minutes 
two times per week or 15 minutes three times per week. Figures 5-2 and 5-3 
show examples of elementary school teacher schedules that demonstrate 
how 150 minutes of time for physical education can be incorporated suc-
cessfully into any master schedule. 
Other positive examples, identified in the report Physical Education 
Matters (San Diego State University, 2007), include successful case studies 
from low-resource California schools. The report acknowledges, however, 
that advancing such opportunities will require policy changes at the state, 
district, and local levels. These changes include securing grant funds with 
which to implement high-tech physical education wellness centers, staff 
commitment to professional development, administrative support, physical 
education being made a priority, community support, use of certified physi-
cal education teachers, and district support. Identifying the need to reform 
physical education guided by evidence-based findings, the report concludes 
that (1) curriculum matters, (2) class size matters, (3) qualified teachers 
matter, (4) professional development matters, and (5) physical environment 
matters. If programs are to excel and students are to achieve, delivery of the 
curriculum must be activity based; class sizes must be commensurate with 
those for other subject areas; highly qualified physical education special-
ists, as opposed to classroom teachers, must be hired to deliver instruction; 
professional development in activity-focused physical education must be 
delivered; and school physical education facilities, such as playing fields and 
indoor gym space and equipment, must be available.
A separate report, Physical Education Matters: Success Stories from 
California Low Resource Schools That Have Achieved Excellent Physical 
Education Programs (San Diego State University, 2007), notes that when 
funding from a variety of grant resources, including federal funding, 
became available, schools were able to transition to high-quality programs 
using innovative instructional strategies. Those strategies included well-

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Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
246
 
Educating the Student Body
FIGURE 5-2 
Example of a schedule demonstrating time for 150 minutes per week of physi-
cal education.
NOTE: Sample is taken from a teacher schedule in a traditional elementary school.
SOURCE: Large Urban Public School District, Miami-Dade County Public Schools.
Monday
Wednesday
Tuesday
Thursday
Friday
Time
8:35-8:50
8:50-9:05
9:05-9:20
9:20-9:35
9:50-10:00
9:35-9:50
10:15-10:30
10:00-10:15
10:30-10:35
10:35-10:50
10:50-11:05
11:05-11:20
11:35-11:50
11:50-12:05
12:05-12:20
12:20-12:35
12:35-12:50
12:50-1:05
1:05-1:20
1:20-1:35
1:35-1:50
1:50-2:05
2:05-2:20
2:20-2:35
2:35-2:50
2:50-3:05
11:20-11:35
MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS
RECESS
RECESS
SCIENCE
SCIENCE
SCIENCE
SCIENCE
SCIENCE
LAB
MUSIC
WORLD 
LANGUAGE
WRITING
ART
WORLD 
LANGUAGE
LUNCH
LUNCH
LUNCH
LUNCH
LUNCH
SOCIAL SCIENCE SOCIAL SCIENCE SOCIAL SCIENCE SOCIAL SCIENCE
SOCIAL SCIENCE
SOCIAL SCIENCE SOCIAL SCIENCE
SOCIAL SCIENCE SOCIAL SCIENCE
WRITING
WRITING
WRITING
WRITING
PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
READING
READING
READING
READING
READING
Figure 5-2.eps
ness centers and active gaming, which engaged students in becoming more 
physically active. Administrative support was found to be a key factor in 
turning programs around, along with staff commitment and professional 
development. Having certified physical education teachers and making 
physical education a priority in the schools were other key factors. External 
factors further strengthened programs, including having school district sup-
port, having a physical education coordinator, and using state standards to 
provide accountability. Additional ways to overcome the barriers to quality 
physical education include scheduling time for physical education, ensuring 
reasonable class size, providing nontraditional physical education activities, 
making classes more active and fun for all students, and acknowledging the 
importance of role modeling and personal investment and involvement in