2.2. Approaches to learning and teaching speaking
Speaking in the English language has been considered the most
challenging of the four skills given the fact that it involves a
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Зимняя И.А. Психологические аспекты обучения говорению на иностранном языке. – М.:
Просвещение, 1978. – C. 58.
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See: Millrood R.P. English Teaching Methodology. -M.: Drofa, 2007. –P. 111.
165
complex process of constructing meaning. This process requires
speakers to make decisions about why, how and when to
communicate depending on the cultural and social context in which
the speaking act occurs. Additionally, it involves a dynamic
interrelation between speakers and hearers that results in their
simultaneous interaction of producing and processing spoken
discourse under time constraints. Given all these defining aspects of
the complex and intricate nature of spoken discourse, increasing
research conducted over the last few decades has recognized
speaking as an interactive, social and contextualized communicative
event. Therefore, the key role of the speaking skill in developing
learners’ communicative competence has also become evident, since
this skill requires learners to be in possession of knowledge about
how to produce not only linguistically correct but also pragmatically
appropriate utterances. Drawing on these considerations, this
subtheme first outlines the advances that have been made in learning
the skill of speaking over the last decades. It then considers how this
knowledge becomes the basis for teaching speaking from a
communicative perspective. Finally, it presents the importance of
integrating this skill within a communicative competence
framework so that learners can acquire their English language
communicative competence through speaking
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.
Up to the end of the 1960s, the field of language learning was
influenced by environmentalist ideas that paid attention to the
learning process as being conditioned by the external environment
rather than by human internal mental processes. Moreover,
mastering a series of structures in a linear way was paramount.
Within such an approach, the primacy of speaking was obvious
since it was assumed that language was primarily an oral
phenomenon. Thus, learning to speak a language, in a similar way to
any other type of learning, followed a stimulus-response-
reinforcement pattern which involved constant practice and the
formation of good habits. In this pattern, speakers were first exposed
to linguistic input as a type of external stimulus and their response
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consisted of imitating and repeating such input. If this was done
correctly, they received a positive reinforcement by other language
users within their same environment. The continuous practice of this
speech-pattern until good habits were formed resulted in learning
how to speak. Consequently, it was assumed that speaking a
language involved just repeating, imitating and memorizing the
input that speakers were exposed to. These assumptions deriving
from the environmentalist view of learning to speak gave rise to the
Audiolingual teaching approach. This instructional method
emphasized the importance of starting with the teaching of oral
skills, rather than the written ones, by applying the fixed order of
listening-speaking-reading-writing for each structure. Thus, learners
were engaged in a series of activities, such as exercises and
substitution exercises, which focused on repeating grammatical
structures and patterns through intense aural-oral practice. However,
rather than fostering spoken interaction, this type of oral activities
was simply a way of teaching pronunciation skills and grammatical
accuracy. Consequently, although it can be assumed that this
approach to learning and teaching speaking stressed the
development of oral skills, speaking was merely considered as an
effective medium for providing language input and facilitating
memorization rather than as a discourse skill in its own right. In
fact, significant aspects, such as the role that internal mental
processes play when learning to produce new and more complex
grammatical structures, were neglected under this view. The task of
paying attention to those processes was the focus of study in the
following years.
Another approach is speaking within an innatist. By the late
1960s, the previous view of learning to speak as a mechanical
process consisting in the oral repetition of grammatical structures
was challenged by Chomsky’s theory of language development
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.
His assumption that children are born with an innate potential for
language acquisition was the basis for the innatist approach to
language learning. Thus, as a result of this assumption and together
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167
with the discipline of psycholinguistics that aimed to test
Chomsky’s innatist theory, the mental and cognitive processes
involved in generating language began to gain importance. Within
such an approach, it was claimed that regardless of the environment
where speakers were to produce language, they had the internal
faculty or competence in Chomsky’s terms, to create and understand
an infinite amount of discourse. This language ability was possibly
due to the fact that speakers had internalized a system of rules which
could be transformed into new structures by applying a series of
cognitive strategies. Given this process, speakers’ role changed from
merely receiving input and repeating it, as was the view in the
environmentalist approach, to actively thinking how to produce
language. Consequently, it was assumed that speaking a language
was a decontextualized process which just involved the mental
transformation of such an internalized system of rules.
These innatist assumptions about learning to speak did not
result in any specific teaching methodology. However, the emphasis
on practicing exercises and repeating grammatical structures
advocated by the audiolingual approach was replaced by «an
interest in cognitive methods which would enable language learners
to hypothesis about language structures and grammatical
patterns»
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. In this type of methods, learners took on a more
important role in that they were provided with opportunities to use
the language more creatively and innovatively after having been
taught the necessary grammatical rules. Although this approach
recognized the relevance of speakers’ mental construction of the
language system in order to be able to produce it, speaking was still
considered to be an abstract process occurring in isolation.
In fact, this innatist view of learning and teaching speaking did
not take into account relevant aspects of language use in
communication, such as the relationship between language and
meaning (i.e., the functions of language) or the importance of the
social context in which language is produced. The consideration of
these aspects took place in subsequent years.
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See: Burns and Joyce, 1997. –P. 43.
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There is also another approach which is called interactionist.
This approach is based on interactionist ideas that emphasized the
role of the linguistic environment in interaction with the innate
capacity for language development.
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