Understanding Psychology (10th Ed)

FIGURE 11 
A solution to the nine-dot 
problem requires the use of lines drawn 
beyond the boundaries of the fi gure—
something that our mental set may 
prevent us from seeing easily.
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K E Y T E R M S
means-ends analysis p. 255
insight p. 257
functional fi xedness p. 259
mental set p. 259
confi rmation bias p. 260
creativity p. 261
divergent thinking p. 262
convergent thinking p. 262
1.
transformation; 2.
insight; 
3.
functional fi
xedness, mental set;
4.
confi rmation 
bias; 5.
diver
gent thinking
264 Chapter 
8 
Cognition and Language
R E C A P / E V A L U A T E / R E T H I N K
R E C A P
How do people approach and solve problems?
• Problem solving typically involves three major stages: 
preparation, production of solutions, and evaluation of 
solutions that have been generated. (p. 251)
• Preparation involves placing the problem in one of three 
categories. In arrangement problems, a group of 
elements must be rearranged or recombined in a way 
that will satisfy a certain criterion. In problems of 
inducing structure, a person fi rst must identify the 
existing relationships among the elements presented and 
then construct a new relationship among them. Finally, 
transformation problems consist of an initial state, a goal 
state, and a method for changing the initial state into the 
goal state. (p. 252)
• A crucial aspect of the preparation stage is the represen-
tation and organization of the problem. (p. 254)
• In the production stage, people try to generate solutions. 
They may fi nd solutions to some problems in long-term 
memory. Alternatively, they may solve some problems 
through simple trial and error and use algorithms and 
heuristics to solve more complex problems. (p. 255)
• Using the heuristic of a means-ends analysis, a person 
will repeatedly test for differences between the desired 
outcome and what currently exists, trying each time to 
come closer to the goal. (p. 255)
• Köhler’s research with chimpanzees illustrates insight, a 
sudden awareness of the relationships among elements 
that had previously seemed unrelated. (p. 256)
What are the major obstacles to problem solving?
• Several factors hinder effective problem solving. Mental 
set, of which functional fi xedness is an example, is the 
tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist. 
Inappropriate use of algorithms and heuristics can also 
act as an obstacle to the production of solutions. 
Confi rmation bias, in which initial hypotheses are 
favored, can hinder the accurate evaluation of solutions 
to problems. (p. 258)
What is creativity?
• Creativity is the ability to combine responses or ideas in 
novel ways. Creativity is related to divergent thinking 
(the ability to generate unusual, but still appropriate, 
responses to problems or questions) and cognitive 
complexity. (p. 261)