The discussion of the Indonesian crisis has illustrated
that while unexpected events are certain to occur,
traditional forecasting methods are inadequate without
the incorporation of new forecasting techniques that
are sensitive to signals regarding potential crises
and the consideration of risk ranking that use a range
of quantitative measures not usually employed in
current forecasting methods. Indonesia proved not to
have the institutional resilience to weather the partially
self-inflicted disaster in its tourism industry. In the case
of Indonesia, years of undemocratic government,
cronyism and corruption have resulted in rigidities
that have made its industry less adaptable and un-
able to respond creatively to new challenges. While not
all countries face the same level of problems experienced
by Indonesia in the period 1997–2002, the impact of
events such as the Asian financial crisis and the Gulf
War may have significant and unanticipated impacts.
Introducing new elements into forecasting, including a
wide range of scenarios based on political and economic
risk may enhance managers’ ability to plan for the
future.
6. Modelling disruptions to tourism
A model of the factors influencing tourism flows
between an origin and a specific destination was
proposed by
Laws (1995)
. The direction, frequency
and intensity of tourist flows are the cumulative
outcome of several influences either creating push
conditions in the origin, or pulling visitors towards the
destination. The approach is similar to
Dann (1977)
,
who explains that push factors are those that provide the
impetus for individuals to travel, raising the question of
where to go. According to
Dann (1977
, p. 168) ‘Pull
factors are the destination specific attributes which tend
to determine whether the traveller will go to A or to B.’
The amount of free time and disposable income of the
population in tourist origin areas determine the overall
volume of demand for travel from that area, pushing
tourists towards destinations, while the differences in
climate, culture and other attractions of the destination
pull visitors towards it. Over a period of time, the flow
linking one destination and one origin will stabilise,
through familiarity and the institutions of tourism
marketing and tour operating. But three additional
groups of factors can disrupt the established flow,
suddenly and unpredictably withpotentially severe
consequences for the destination. The groups of factors
are:
Inhibiting factors
. Events in the country of origin,
suchas an economic depression, political uncertainty or
adverse foreign exchange rates may inhibit the outflow
of tourists to all destinations.
Diverting factors
. Another disruption to established
travel patterns is the development of new destinations
(or existing destinations setting their prices at more
accessible levels). This has the effect of diverting existing
tourist flows.
Repelling factors
. The destination may experience a
natural catastrophe or civil unrest, thus repelling
incoming tourists from all countries of origin. At a
lower level of disruption, Governments have sometimes
imposed stringent visa requirements for visitors from
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