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Table 6.
Economics, energy, and solar PV in the U.S. and South Korea.
United States
South Korea
Economics
a
GDP (billion USD, 2015)
17,947
1,378
GDP per capita (USD, 2015)
55,837
27,222
Export of goods and services
(% of GDP, 2015)
12.6
45.9
High-technology exports
(billion USD, 2014)
155
133
R&D Expenditure
(% of GDP, 2013)
2.73
4.15
Energy
Total primary energy supply
(Mtoe, 2014)
b
2,216
268
Share of renewables (% in
TPES, 2014)
b
6.9
1.5
Investment in renewable
energy (billion USD, 2014)
c
37
7.7
Solar PV
Electricity Production from
Solar PV (GWh, 2014)
b
21,915
2,557
The Share of Solar PV in
Electricity Generation (%)
b
4
18
Technical Potential (TWh)
d
283,600
2,341
Solar PV
Industry
Multinational PV module
manufacturer
Yes
Yes
The share of manufacturers in
solar PV companies (%)
e
21%
61%
Solar PV Exports (billion
USD, 2014)
f
2.2
2.3
Main
Solar
Policies
Renewable Energy Policy
Investment Tax
Credits (2005-)
Feed-in-Tariff
(2002-2011)
Renewable
Portfolio Standard
(2012-)
Others
Imposition of
tariffs on Chinese
solar panels (2013)
Promotion of
renewable energy
industry and
exports
a
Source: The World Bank, “World Bank Open Data”,
http://data.worldbank.org
b
Source: IEA, 2016 Renewables Information
c
Source: REN21, Renewables 2016: Global Status Report; New and Renewable Energy
Korea, https://www.renewableenergy.or.kr/main.do
d
Source: White Paper on New and Renewable Energy, 2012; Lopez et al. (2012).
e
Membership data of the U.S. Solar Energy Industries Association and Korea
Photovoltaic Industry Association
f
The USITC Interactive Tariff and Trade DataWeb; New and Renewable Energy Korea,
https://www.renewableenergy.or.kr/main.do
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Contributions and policy implication
This research contributes to the literature on trade and the environment by
analyzing a new phenomenon, the recent rise of trade and industrial policies on
renewable energy, which conflict with the original goal of traditional renewable energy
policies. Previous research provides good understanding of current growth of renewable
energy installation and expanding traditional renewable energy policies in many
countries, but it is limited in explaining countries’ increasing adoption of protectionist
measures on renewable energy. The research also contributes to the literature on
protectionism. Despite the concern on the rise of murky type of protectionism after the
global financial crisis, its contexts have been less understood. This research complements
the literature by analyzing a case of one of the forms of murky protectionism.
Other than these contributions, each analysis of this research makes additional
contributions. Analysis 1 and Analysis 2 provide better understanding to the literature on
institutional change by showing the interactions between multinational corporations and
national policies, and by studying collaborative actions of multinational actors in an issue
field. Analysis 3 suggests a model on the diversification of national policies under a
globalized industry, which provides implications on the theory of policy convergence.
The findings of this research provide implications to the policymakers who design
renewable energy policies. Unlike the past, it is difficult to predict the result of a
renewable energy policy because diverse domestic and international factors affect the
policy. Understanding these factors will be the first step to design an effective renewable
energy policy. The findings of this work would be beneficial from this perspective.
32
Moreover, based on the understanding of the contexts of globalized renewable energy
industry, the research contributes to suggestions about the direction of national or
international renewable energy policy.
Organization of the book
Chapter 2 reviews the literature on trade and the environment and the theories
used for each analysis. Chapter 3 describes the findings of Analysis 1, which examines
how solar PV multinational corporations have affected national policies. In Chapter 4, the
result of Analysis 2, which investigates the political interactions regarding solar PV trade
issue, is presented. Chapter 5 through Chapter 7 describes the result of Analysis 3.
Chapter 5 explores the policy changes in the U.S, and Chapter 6 describes the changes in
South Korea. Chapter 7 analyzes the mechanism of policy change by synthesizing two
cases. Chapter 8 evaluates the propositions, and concludes with contributions and policy
recommendations.
33
Chapter 2. Literature review
This chapter reviews the literature on trade and the environment, and the theories
used for the three analyses of this research. Overall, this research aims to provide better
understanding to the literature of trade and the environment, but each analysis uses
different theories to answer the question of each analysis. Analysis 1 and 2 are grounded
in institutional theory; Analysis 1 is based on the literature of multinational corporations’
co-evolution with institutions, and Analysis 2 is based on the concept of an issue field.
Analysis 3 is based on the literature on globalization and policy convergence.
Trade and the environment
The relations between trade and the environment have been an interest of many
scholars. Many hypotheses have developed to explain the relations, and empirical studies
have conducted to test them. There is no consistency on the effect of trade on the
environment among these studies. Some studies showed positive effects of international
trade, but the others revealed negative effects.
One of the most well-known hypothesis suggesting positive effects of trade on the
environment is environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis. Grossman and Kreuger
found that economic growth eventually brought an improvement of environmental quality
after an initial phase of environmental degradation.
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They suggested three effects of
economic growth on the environment:
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