330
Positive Development
directly) determining what people would hypothetically be willing to pay. This assumes ‘perfect
knowledge’ on the part of those surveyed about the value of ecosystems to survival and life
quality, as well as their capacity to adapt to human interventions. The idea of market value is
influenced by marginal analysis: the market value of eco-services, like any other commercial
good, is determined by their contribution to the total ‘surplus’ goods traded in the market. The
total economic surplus
equals the
consumer surplus
+ the
producer surplus
. The consumer surplus
is the maximum people would pay minus what they do pay (ie how much money the buyers
feel they save). The producer surplus is the total revenues from a good, minus total costs of
producing it. The surplus is a measure of the changes in quantity or quality of marketed goods,
not the total value. So the surplus only counts the marginal value, ie not the total value of
eco-services, but the value-added. As Heal argues, this sort of marginal economic thinking
cannot really deal with ecosystem collapse or irreversible change.
1
Thus there seems to be
some confusion in applying willingness to pay to man-made products versus self-maintaining
systems whose value is not marginal but essential. For example, the costs of cleaning up a lake
would be measured by effects on total consumer and producer surplus, but not the whole
value of the industry – let alone the intrinsic value of nature. It is understood that pollution
reduces the quality and quantity of goods like fish or crops, and cleaning pollution imposes
costs. However, if the costs were greater than the benefit, the costs of restoring nature would
not be seen as economically sound.
Productivity
: This measures the economic benefits of improved environmental quality. Ecosystems,
such as wetlands and forests, can be seen as ‘inputs’ which increase the amount of ‘outputs’
produced (clean water, fish, birds, honey, etc). This method only counts resources that are
inputs in marketed goods – not the whole system that is required to sustain those resources.
It places no value on nature per se.
Hedonic pricing
: This usually uses property and house values to measure the value that individu-
als place on environmental quality. A house will be worth more if it has good views, clean air
and water, etc. Other variables (eg size, number of rooms) can be statistically eliminated to
determine the value of one environmental characteristic, like closeness to open space. While
studies may indicate that people are willing to pay to be close to open space, this does not
capture the multiple values of nature. They may also assume people have choices, but most
cannot really choose where to work. Lifestyle considerations such as ‘downshifting’ (ie giving
up income for more leisure time and life quality) are hard to factor in.
Travel cost
: This assesses the value of, say, wilderness, mountains or lakes by measuring what
people pay in time and money to travel to them. This is an admittedly rough approximation of
value, but it has been used to support arguments to protect natural use.
Survey techniques
: Another means of calculating ‘willingness to pay’, where eco-services are not
traded on the market, is to survey people what they would be willing to pay.
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: