‘This is a wonderful book that should be on the desk of every architect and planner. It shows how



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Positive Development From Vicious Circles to V

Environmental valuation
: To obtain figures for CBA frameworks, various forms of valu
-
ation can be used as surrogates that reflect environmental qualities, including:
• 
Use values
, which do not require actual use and can be ‘secondary’ uses, like watching a 
TV show on the Tarkine wilderness in Tasmania, which is currently being destroyed.
• 
Option values
, which are what people would pay for preserving options. Even though 
people themselves may not enjoy something, they have the option to do so, like the 
Tarkine someday.
• 
Bequest
value
, which is what people would pay so that future generations can enjoy 
something. This still has ‘use value’ to people today if they want their grandchildren to 
see the Tarkine.
• 
Non-use values
, which are what people would pay for something, even though they never 
expect to enjoy it – just to know it is there (ie the Tarkine has ‘existence’ value).
Discounting
: CBA discounts to present values, which means a factor is used to reflect 
inflation and the idea that people prefer to spend now rather than later. When applied to 
public goods, such as natural systems, which do not ‘depreciate’ in value, this makes little 
sense [Box 43].
Monetary equivalents
: Various methods can be used to assign a ‘value to ecosystem 
services, so that the environment can be made to fit into a cost–benefit framework. These 
methods include ‘costs avoided’, ‘market price’, ‘productivity’, ‘hedonic pricing’, ‘travel cost’ and 
‘surveys’, as discussed below. 
Costs avoided
: A relatively simple method used to determine the benefits of an ecosystem is to 
calculate the cost of avoiding damage, substituting the environmental service or restoring the 
environment. For example, the costs of protecting a watershed or river can be compared to 
the total cost of dealing with erosion, treating water, dredging sediment, regenerating animal 
populations, floods, insurance, etc. (This justified the preservation of New York City’s Catskill 
watershed, where a new water filtration plant would have cost four times more than restora
-
tion of the watershed and yet still have more maintenance and operating costs.) 
Market price
: Economic value is usually based on ‘willingness to pay’. Willingness to pay depends 
on the ability to pay and thus can favour the preferences of the wealthy. This method could, 
for instance, support more spending on prolonging the lives of relatively few wealthy elderly 
than saving children in poor countries from preventable diseases. Some economists have even 
calculated the lives of people in rich nations to be worth more than those in poor countries.
When something is not traded in the market, some economists apply the same reasoning by (in
-


330
Positive Development
directly) determining what people would hypothetically be willing to pay. This assumes ‘perfect 
knowledge’ on the part of those surveyed about the value of ecosystems to survival and life 
quality, as well as their capacity to adapt to human interventions. The idea of market value is 
influenced by marginal analysis: the market value of eco-services, like any other commercial 
good, is determined by their contribution to the total ‘surplus’ goods traded in the market. The 
total economic surplus
equals the 
consumer surplus
+ the 
producer surplus
. The consumer surplus 
is the maximum people would pay minus what they do pay (ie how much money the buyers 
feel they save). The producer surplus is the total revenues from a good, minus total costs of 
producing it. The surplus is a measure of the changes in quantity or quality of marketed goods, 
not the total value. So the surplus only counts the marginal value, ie not the total value of 
eco-services, but the value-added. As Heal argues, this sort of marginal economic thinking 
cannot really deal with ecosystem collapse or irreversible change.
1
Thus there seems to be 
some confusion in applying willingness to pay to man-made products versus self-maintaining 
systems whose value is not marginal but essential. For example, the costs of cleaning up a lake 
would be measured by effects on total consumer and producer surplus, but not the whole 
value of the industry – let alone the intrinsic value of nature. It is understood that pollution 
reduces the quality and quantity of goods like fish or crops, and cleaning pollution imposes 
costs. However, if the costs were greater than the benefit, the costs of restoring nature would 
not be seen as economically sound.
Productivity
: This measures the economic benefits of improved environmental quality. Ecosystems, 
such as wetlands and forests, can be seen as ‘inputs’ which increase the amount of ‘outputs’ 
produced (clean water, fish, birds, honey, etc). This method only counts resources that are 
inputs in marketed goods – not the whole system that is required to sustain those resources.
It places no value on nature per se.
Hedonic pricing
: This usually uses property and house values to measure the value that individu-
als place on environmental quality. A house will be worth more if it has good views, clean air 
and water, etc. Other variables (eg size, number of rooms) can be statistically eliminated to 
determine the value of one environmental characteristic, like closeness to open space. While 
studies may indicate that people are willing to pay to be close to open space, this does not 
capture the multiple values of nature. They may also assume people have choices, but most 
cannot really choose where to work. Lifestyle considerations such as ‘downshifting’ (ie giving 
up income for more leisure time and life quality) are hard to factor in.
Travel cost
: This assesses the value of, say, wilderness, mountains or lakes by measuring what 
people pay in time and money to travel to them. This is an admittedly rough approximation of 
value, but it has been used to support arguments to protect natural use.
Survey techniques
: Another means of calculating ‘willingness to pay’, where eco-services are not 
traded on the market, is to survey people what they would be willing to pay.

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