‘This is a wonderful book that should be on the desk of every architect and planner. It shows how



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Positive Development From Vicious Circles to V


particularly in Australia.
An example of this approach can be demonstrated in relation to a case study of energy 
consumption in Canberra. These policies are characterized by a fundamental reliance on ef
-
ficiency gains, supply-side solutions and impact mitigation of new developments. The policies 
appearing on the graph below are a combination of both local (ACT) and Federal Government 
schemes.
The consumption of electricity can be seen to steadily rise until 2002, after which it continues 
to increase but at a reduced rate. This change corresponds to a rise in the consumption of 
gas at around the same time. Transport energy inputs have been rising gradually and uniformly 
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
Year
T
er
aJoules
H.Q. Design
Guidelines
Market de-
regulation
Planning
System
Reform
Gas
Promo
Spatial
Plan
Sustainable
Transport
Plan
Annual Energy Inputs (by category)
Gas
Transport
Electricity (coal)


326
Positive Development
since 2000. The graph below represents the sum energy inputs of the three fuels analysed in the 
previous graph. When population change is accounted for by dividing the sum of these fuels by 
total population at each point in time, it is also clear that per capita energy consumption has 
continued to rise, from approximately 135 GigaJoules to 155 GigaJoules over the last decade. 
Taken together, the two graphs suggest that increases in total energy metabolism are caused 
by both population growth and increased per capita consumption. While the rate of increase 
may have flattened, the direction of change remains undesirable from an ecological standpoint.
The apparent ineffectiveness of current policies calls for scrutiny of the key characteristics 
underlying these approaches.
First, the heavy reliance on efficiency initiatives has proven ineffective for several reasons. Such 
initiatives are favoured largely due to a compatibility with ‘business-as-usual’ and society’s 
preference for avoiding lifestyle change. However, increases in efficiency translate to increased 
affordability, which may in turn actually 
increase
overall demand due to ‘elasticity’ effects. There 
are also indirect effects of reducing energy costs through efficiency in that consumers are able 
to afford more products/appliances, or choose more feature-packed, energy-intensive models. 
Consequently, resource efficiency does not guarantee resource conservation, particularly where 
affluence is simultaneously rising. 
Second, policies to increase the supply of alternative energy sources, as currently implemented, 
are also limited. As overall supply is increased, prices (or at least price rises) may be dampened, 
and thus consumption of 
all
forms of electricity is supported. Similarly, increases in gas supply 
and consumption can be seen to only dampen growth in electricity consumption, rather than 
reducing consumption. Although gas is half as polluting it is less expensive than electricity. This 
effectively lowers total energy costs, thus encouraging demand. Through these supply-side pro
-
cesses, the urban system is maintained in a perpetual state of exploitation, rather than evolving 
towards a mature conservation-oriented structure as found in natural ecosystems. 
In summary, the analysis points to the urgent need for sustainability policy that focuses on 
reducing the 
need
for resources, rather than providing for increasing demand more efficiently. 
Efficiency and conservation are clearly different things. Political and capital interests remain 
major obstacles to achieving the latter, as reflected by a lack of strategic commitment to 
achieving stated goals.
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
120.0
125.0
130.0
135.0
140.0
145.0

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