Theme: The role and productivity of motivation in learning foreign languages

Theme: The role and productivity of motivation in learning foreign languages

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION .............…………………………………………….…..					3
CHAPTER I			THE IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION IN EFL
1.1			DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION.................... 4
1.2			DIFFERENT TYPES OF MOTIVATION............ 7
CHAPTER II			PARTICULAR APPROACHES FOR GENERATING MOTIVATION
2.1			THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTEGRATIVE AND INSTRUMENTAL MOTIVATION................ 11
2.2			THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION.................. 14
CHAPTER III			FACTORS INFLUENCING MOTIVATION
3.1			THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN ALL THE STAGES OF THE MOTIVATIONAL PROCESS................... 19
3.2			ADOPTING A MOTIVATIONAL TEACHING PRACTICE......... 24
CONCLUSION ……………………………………………….……….........35
THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE …………………................................36

INTRODUCTION

The objective need of modern society, especially for conditions of reforms of all its structures, including education, the search optimal ways to increase motivation when studying foreign languages. The higher the level of student motivation, the more fruitful it will be studying of foreign language. Democratization of society and the growth of national identity in the country led to a radical rethinking of the tasks assigned to the school. The main tasks of teaching a foreign language are: Personality-activity approach and the formation of a sustainable positive motivation in learning activities. Based fundamental thesis of domestic researchers on the role of motivation in activities, including educational activities that motivation is one of the most important educational management tools student activities

The relevance of this, problem due to the search for ways formation of motivation in learning a foreign language based on considering what motivation is in general and what ways to increase it exist in modern techniques.

The object of this, study is motivation and the process formation of motivation of younger students to study a foreign language.

The subject of the research is a complex of pedagogical conditions and modern techniques that contribute to the formation of motivation schoolchildren to study a foreign language. Objective of the study: increasing motivation in learning foreign language using modern technologies and methods. Based on the objectives of the study, a hypothesis can be put forward: Modern techniques, namely gaming technologies, interactive methods, communicative system-activity approach and others, form motivation for learning a foreign language.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

1. study and summarize the available data on the problem of motivation;

2.to study modern methods of teaching a foreign language and their importance for the formation of motivation of schoolchildren;

3. to apply in practice techniques that contribute to the increase Motivation;

4.conduct a comparative analysis of the level of motivation of schoolchildren in two stages.

Structure: the work consists of the following parts: introduction, three chapters, Conclusions, applications and list of used literature.

The introduction reveals the research topic, emphasizes its relevance, goals and objectives are set, methods of work are revealed, the scientific novelty of the research, practical and theoretic the significance of the work.

The first chapter of the thesis considers the concept «Motivation», views on this problem in domestic and foreign research, features, properties and structure.

CHAPTER I THE IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION IN EFL

1.1 Definition Of Motivation

Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It is what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.

Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior. In everyday usage, the term "motivation" is frequently used to describe why a person does something. It is the driving force behind human actions.

Motivation doesn't just refer to the factors that activate behaviors; it also involves the factors that direct and maintain these goal-directed actions (though such motives are rarely directly observable). As a result, we often have to infer the reasons why people do the things that they do based on observable behaviors.

What exactly lies behind the motivations for why we act? Psychologists have proposed different theories of motivation, including drive theory, instinct theory, and humanistic theory (such as Maslow's hierarchy of needs). The reality is that there are many different forces that guide and direct our motivations.

Types of Motivation

Different types of motivation are frequently described as being either extrinsic or intrinsic:

Extrinsic motivations are those that arise from outside of the individual and often involve rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition, or praise.

Intrinsic motivations are those that arise from within the individual, such as doing a complicated crossword puzzle purely for the personal gratification of solving a problem.2

Uses

There are many different uses for motivation. It serves as a guiding force for all human behavior, but understanding how it works and the factors that may impact it can be important in a number of ways.

Understanding motivation can:

Help improve the efficiency of people as they work toward goals

Help people take action

Encourage people to engage in health-oriented behaviors

Help people avoid unhealthy or maladaptive behaviors such as risk-taking and addiction

Help people feel more in control of their lives

Improve overall well-being and happiness

Impact

Anyone who has ever had a goal (like wanting to lose 20 pounds or run a marathon) probably immediately realizes that simply having the desire to accomplish something is not enough. Achieving such a goal requires the ability to persist through obstacles and endurance to keep going in spite of difficulties.

There are three major components of motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity.

Activation involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology class.

Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An example of persistence would be taking more psychology courses in order to earn a degree although it requires a significant investment of time, energy, and resources.

Intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal.4 For example, one student might coast by without much effort, while another student will study regularly, participate in discussions, and take advantage of research opportunities outside of class. The first student lacks intensity, while the second pursues their educational goals with greater intensity.

The degree of each of these components of motivation can impact whether or not you achieve your goal. Strong activation, for example, means that you are more likely to start pursuing a goal. Persistence and intensity will determine if you keep working toward that goal and how much effort you devote to reaching it.

Tips

All people experience fluctuations in their motivation and willpower. Sometimes you might feel fired up and highly driven to reach your goals, while at other times you might feel listless or unsure of what you want or how to achieve it.

Even if you're feeling low on motivation, there are steps you can take that will keep you moving forward. Some things you can do include:

Adjust your goals to focus on things that really matter to you

If you're tackling something that is just too big or too overwhelming, break it up into smaller steps and try setting your sights on achieving that first step toward progress

Improve your confidence

Remind yourself about what you achieved in the past and what where your strengths lie

If there are things you feel insecure about, try working on making improvements in those areas so that you feel more skilled and capable.

What to Do When You Have No Motivation

Potential Pitfalls

There are a few things you should watch for that might hurt your motivation. These include:

Quick fixes or all-or-nothing thinking. It's easy to feel unmotivated if you can't fix something immediately or if you can't have it all at once. Remind yourself that reaching your goals takes time.

Thinking that one size fits all. Just because an approach or method worked for someone else does not mean that it will work for you. If something isn't helping you reach your goals or is making you feel unmotivated, look for things that will work better for you.

Talk to your doctor if you are feeling symptoms of apathy and low mood that last longer than two weeks. Sometimes a persistent lack of motivation might be tied to a mental health condition such as depression.

History of Motivation

What are the things that actually motivate us to act? Throughout history, psychologists have proposed different theories to explain what motivates human behavior. The following are some of the major theories of motivation.

Instincts

The instinct theory of motivation suggests that behaviors are motivated by instincts, which are fixed and inborn patterns of behavior.5 Psychologists including William James, Sigmund Freud, and William McDougal have proposed a number of basic human drives that motivate behavior. Such instincts might include biological instincts that are important for an organism's survival such as fear, cleanliness, and love.

Drives and Needs

Many of your behaviors such as eating, drinking, and sleeping are motivated by biology. You have a biological need for food, water, and sleep. Therefore, you are motivated to eat, drink, and sleep. Drive theory suggests that people have basic biological drives and that behaviors are motivated by the need to fulfill these drives.

Arousal Levels

The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are motivated to engage in behaviors that help them maintain their optimal level of arousal.3 A person with low arousal needs might pursue relaxing activities such as reading a book, while those with high arousal needs might be motivated to engage in exciting, thrill-seeking behaviors, such as motorcycle racing.

A Word From Verywell

Understanding motivation is important in many areas of life, from parenting to the workplace. You may want to set the best goals and establish the right reward systems to motivate others as well as to increase your own motivation.

Knowledge of motivating factors and manipulating them is used in marketing and other aspects of industrial psychology. It's an area where there are many myths and everyone can benefit from knowing what works and what doesn't.

1.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MOTIVATION

We all have motivation that ebbs and flows.

Some mornings you wake up energized to get to work and power through that to-do list. Others you smack the alarm clock, curse the morning and give yourself an extra five minutes to dream about putting in your notice and getting the first flight out to a tropical locale. Not to mention the peaks and valleys that we experience within just one day: First thing in the morning (with a workout and an espresso under our belt) we're feeling like a walking advertisement for motivation. By the time the afternoon munchies kick in we're counting down the hours until we can throw in the towel. But identifying the "why" behind the actions you perform can make finding the motivation to do them easier on those days when you’re feeling less-than-inspired. Whether you’re dragging yourself to the gym or fighting the mental battle against procrastination at work, making a mental shift to reconnect to your source of motivation can give you the boost to get it done.

The 3 Types of Motivation

Motivations are primarily separated into two categories: extrinsic and intrinsic. Good news if neither of these get the job done. Researchers have identified a third type of motivation that's impressively effective.

1. Extrinsic

Doing an activity to attain or avoid a separate outcome. Chances are, many of the things you do each day are extrinsically motivate. According to research published in Contemporary Educational Psychology, “Extrinsic motivation is a construct that pertains whenever an activity is done in order to attain some separable outcome.” Like exercising to lose weight, learning to speak Italian to impress your friends, or getting to work on time to avoid being yelled at by your boss. “Extrinsic motivation is doing something for the external rewards you get from it. In your career, this can include financial gain, benefits, perks and even avoiding getting fired,” says says Shawna Clark, owner of Clark Executive Coaching, a leadership development company. When you find your inspiration waning, re-focusing on external rewards is a quick way to recommit to a goal or activity, whether that be performing well at work or sticking to an exercise routine. If you find yourself grumbling through your commute each day (to perform a job you’re not crazy about) try focusing on the external rewards — be it the paycheck that pays your rent, the health insurance or even the free fruit in the cafeteria — to get motivated.

2. Intrinsic

An internal drive for success or sense of purpose

The journal of Contemporary Educational Psychology defines intrinsic motivation as doing “an activity for its inherent satisfaction rather than for some separable consequence. When intrinsically motivated, a person is moved to act for the fun or challenge entailed rather than because of external products, pressures, or rewards.”

Hopefully you have a handful of actions you perform each day that fall under this bucket. Your job may not provide obvious sources of intrinsic motivation, but perhaps you head out for a run because you enjoy the experience of unplugging and pounding the pavement or help your neighbor carry their groceries up the stairs because you genuinely feel good doing it.

“Intrinsic motivation is doing something because it feels good to you. You feel internally rewarded for doing it,” says Clark. “In a job, this can be doing work that feels purposeful, enjoying time with your teammates or achieving goals you’ve set for yourself.”

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Say, for example, you’re a financial adviser and feel genuine satisfaction from being able to help people manage their money in a way that betters their lives. Or you’re a marketing executive who enjoys brainstorming new campaigns with your colleagues. Many people find it harder to identify sources of motivation in this bucket. (Who actually enjoys running or spending 40 hours a week behind a desk?). There is some convincing evidence to encourage us all to identify our sources of intrinsic motivation, though. In a study of 14 years of data, researchers looked at the motivations and outcomes for more than 10,000 incoming cadets at West Point Military Academy. What they found was that cadets with primarily internal motives were about 20 percent more likely to make it through training than the average. (Plus, those with external motivations had a 10 percent lower chance of sticking with a military career and a 20 percent lower chance of being promoted early.) Just because you don’t immediately see the connection with your own job doesn’t mean it doesn't exist. Step back and take a look at the role you perform each day and look for sources of success or purpose. For example: You may not care much about the product your company sells or find satisfaction in fielding phone calls, but as a customer service rep, you can focus on feeling good about the people you were able to help throughout the day and use that as a source of motivation to keep working hard.

Image: A family plays a board game.

The drive to support a family is enough for most people to find meaning in their work. Getty Images

3. Family

Motivated by the desire to provide for your loved ones. Finding intrinsic motivation isn’t always easy, especially for those of us who aren't passionate about our work. Luckily, there is a way to compensate: Think about your family. This has emerged as a third source of motivation proven to be a strong source of inspiration — even for those who do not feel intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to do something.

A new study published in the Academy of Management Journal looked at a group of factory workers whose jobs entailed performing the same mundane task day after day, without any rewards for good performance. You’d think in the absence of both an intrinsic and extrinsic motivator, the workers would have little incentive to work hard in their roles. But what the researchers found was that some people who lack both kinds of motivation are still spurred on by a third factor called “family motivation.”

Those who identified with the statement “I care about supporting my family” felt more energized and performed better each day, even when they didn’t find the work enjoyable and had no financial incentive to perform IT. “Family motivation can relate to both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. If family is a top value of yours, then your family can serve as an intrinsic motivator. If you feel family pressure or obligations, then that's more of an extrinsic motivator,” says Clark. As organizational psychologist Nick Tasler says, “Every job — whether you’re washing dishes or performing kidney surgery — provides us with the opportunity to affirm our identities as capable, respectable individuals, upon whom the most important people in our lives can rely.”

CHAPTER II

PARTICULAR APPROACHES FOR GENERATING MOTIVATION

2.1 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTEGRATIVE AND INSTRUMENTAL MOTIVATION

Abstract

Malaysians have long realised the importance of being competent in English as one of the success factors in attaining their future goals. However, English is taught as a second language in Malaysia, and it is not easy to teach under such a foreign context, because authentic input may not exist beyond the classroom, especially in Chinese private schools. In this scenario, English is learnt as a subject with 10 sessions per week, which is considered insufficient for students to master the language effectively. Past research highlights the significance of motivation in English language acquisition. Motivated students tend to put in more effort in their academic endeavours by showing more persistence in their learning process. The purpose of the study was to identify and analyse whether instrumental or integrative motivation plays a more important role in promoting Form Four ESL students’ English language learning. Furthermore, examine the areas of problems that affect ESL students’ motivation towards English language learning. This study was a qualitative case study that used focus group interviews to elicit data from 12 students in a secondary school in Penang. The findings of this research indicate that students are more instrumentally motivated than integratively motivated in ESL learning. Instrumental motivation is found to have a greater impact on students’ English language learning. This research also highlights that vocabulary and grammar are the biggest areas of problems that are encountered by students during their ESL learning process, which further influence their speaking and writing skills.

English is a global language (David, 2003) that is used internationally for cooperation and communication. It is also the second official language in Malaysia other than Bahasa Malaysia. Malaysians have realised the importance of being competent in English as one of the success factors in their future goals or carrier. Moreover, students can improve their English competency through motivation, which include integrative and instrumental motivation (Thang, 2004). The term motivation is derived from the Latin word “movere”, which carries the meaning “to move”. Some scholars (Huitt, 2001; Kleinginna, 1981) defined it as the factor that energises and provides direction to certain behaviors. It also give explanations to why people do something, how long they will do it and how much effort they will put in to pursue a goal. Motivation plays a significant role in language learning success (Gardner, 1985), especially where English is taught as a second language in Malaysia. It is difficult for students to master the language, as authentic language input may not exist beyond the classroom. Under such circumstances, the learning motivation of student is particularly important towards the mastering of English language. The relationship between learning and motivation is inseparable, motivation can promote learning and learning can produce motivation again (Ausubel, 1968). On the basic of such inference, students’ motivation towards English language learning might, in some degree, determine or influence their learning results. Learner’s enthusiasm, commitment and persistence are the key factors that decide the success or failure of language learning (Dornyei, 2002). Students with strong motivationoften obtain excellent achievement, while students without motivation are those who always give up easily and this could be due to the factor that motivated students are more eager and willing to devote their time to language learning. Since motivation is an indispensable factor in second language acquisition, many studies had been carried out in this domain (Lei, 2012; Chunmei, 2013; Zhigang, 1993). Some of these studies encompass various levels of motivation, types of motivation, factors that affect motivation and other related variables. By understanding the psychological theory and process in motivating students learning thoroughly, only then, a teacher or educator can stimulate students’ motivation, encourage and enhance students’ English learning. Hence, this study focused on providing information for determining the extent and types of motivation, such as integrative or instrumental, in

English language learning.
1.1 Background of the Study Malaysia is a former British colony and English language has been used long before her independence. English became more important when the government of Malaysia had planned to develop the country into a fully industrialised nation by the year 2020. However, English has always been taught as a second language in Malaysia’s education system, under the supervision of the Ministry of Education. Bahasa Malaysia is the main medium used in the primary and secondary school curriculum (both national and national-type schools), where English language can only be learnt through the English subject. The same goes to Chinese private schools, where Chinese language is the main medium in all the teaching instruction and curriculum, except the language class of Bahasa Malaysia and English. Students in these schools learn Bahasa Malaysia and English language as a subject (Saran, 2005). An English teacher from a Chinese private school in Penang pointed out that students study English language with a schedule of 10 sessions per week where two (2) sessions are allocated daily with a duration of thirty five (35) minutes for each. Other than that, students are not exposed to the English language which means that a student only learns English language for 1 hour and 10 minutes per day. It was also highlighted that teachers are given the prerogative to use Mandarin to explain certain vocabularies or hold discussions during the class. As a result, some of the students do not fully understand when the teacher elaborates in English. Thus, after a comparatively short duration of English lessons, students have to strengthen their learning at home, otherwise, they might have difficulties in mastering the language effectively, and their eagerness of using English in class might also be lacking. As such, it is important to determine the types of motivation that can promote Form Four Chinese students learning of English and the challenges that they are confronted with in daily classes. In Malaysia, the Form 4 level is also known as the 10th grade in other countries such as Australia, Canada and United States. The students at this level are 16 years old, and it is their fourth year in their secondary school.

2. 2 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Researchers have found that each type has a different effect on a person's behavior and pursuit of goals.1 To better understand the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on human behavior, it will help to learn how each type works.

Is It Extrinsic or Intrinsic Motivation?

What Is Extrinsic Motivation?

Extrinsic motivation is when we are motivated to perform a behavior or engage in an activity because we want to earn a reward or avoid punishment.1 You will engage in behavior not because you enjoy it or because you find it satisfying, but because you expect to get something in return or avoid something unpleasant.

Understanding Extrinsic Motivation

What Is Intrinsic Motivation?

Intrinsic motivation is when you engage in a behavior because you find it rewarding. You are performing an activity for its own sake rather than from the desire for some external reward. The behavior itself is its own reward.2

Understanding Intrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic Motivation

Participating in a sport to win awards Cleaning your room to avoid being reprimanded by your parents Competing in a contest to win a scholarship Studying because you want to get a good grade

Intrinsic Motivation

Participating in a sport because you find the activity enjoyable Cleaning your room because you like tidying up Solving a word puzzle because you find the challenge fun and exciting Studying a subject you find fascinating

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: Which Is Best?

Extrinsic motivation arises from outside of the individual while intrinsic motivation comes from within. Research has shown that each type has a different effect on human behavior.3Studies have demonstrated that offering excessive external rewards for an already internally rewarding behavior can reduce intrinsic motivation—a phenomenon known as the overjustification effect.

For example, in a 2008 study, children who were rewarded for playing with a toy they had already expressed interest in playing with became less interested in the item after being externally rewarded. This is not to suggest that extrinsic motivation is a bad thing—it can be beneficial in some situations. For example, extrinsic motivation can be particularly helpful when a person needs to complete a task that they find unpleasant.

Additionally, external rewards can:

Be a source of feedback to let people know when their performance has achieved a standard that is deserving of reinforcement Induce interest and participation in an activity an individual was not initially interested in Motivate people to acquire new skills or knowledge (once these early skills have been learned, people might become more intrinsically motivated to pursue an activity). Extrinsic motivators should be avoided in situations where: An individual already finds the activity intrinsically rewarding

Offering a reward might make a "play" activity seem more like "work" When to Use External Rewards

Motivate a person to learn something New Make a person more interested in an activity that they are not interested in Provide feedback to people to let them know their performance is worthy of recognition

When Not to Use External Rewards

A person is already interested in the topic, task, or activity Offering a reward would make the activity feel like "work" instead of "play"

The Psychology of Motivation

When to Use Extrinsic Motivation

Most people assume that intrinsic motivation is best, but it is not always possible in every situation. Sometimes a person simply has no internal desire to engage in an activity. Offering excessive rewards can be problematic as well.

However, when they are used appropriately, extrinsic motivators can be a useful tool. For example, extrinsic motivation can get people to complete a work task or school assignment that they are not interested in.

Researchers have arrived at three primary conclusions regarding extrinsic rewards and their influence on intrinsic motivation: Intrinsic motivation will decrease when external rewards are given for completing a particular task or only doing minimal work.5 If parents heap lavish praise on their child every time they complete a simple task, the child will become less intrinsically motivated to perform that task in the future. Praise can increase internal motivation. Researchers have found that offering positive praise and feedback when people do something better than others can improve intrinsic motivation. Unexpected external rewards do not decrease intrinsic motivation.7 If you get a good grade on a test because you enjoy learning about a subject and the teacher decides to reward you with a gift card to your favorite pizza place, your underlying motivation for learning about the subject will not be affected. However, rewarding in this situation needs to be done with caution because people will sometimes come to expect rewards.

How Do Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Motivation Influence Learning?

Both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation play a significant role in learning. Experts have argued that education's traditional emphasis on external rewards (such as grades, report cards, and gold stars) undermines any existing intrinsic motivation that students might have.

Others have suggested that extrinsic motivators help students feel more competent in the classroom, which in turn enhances their intrinsic motivation. "A person's interest often survives when a reward is used neither to bribe nor to control but to signal a job well done, as in a "most improved player" award. If a reward boosts your feeling of competence after doing good work, your enjoyment of the task may increase. Rewards, rightly administered, can motivate high performance and creativity. And extrinsic rewards (such as scholarships, admissions, and jobs that often follow good grades) are here to stay."—David G. Meyers, Psychology: Eighth Edition in Modules

A Word From Verywell

Both extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation drive human behavior. There are several key differences between motivation that comes from external rewards and the kind that is driven by an individual's genuine interest, including the influence of each type on a person's behavior and the situations in which each type will be most effective. Understanding how each type of motivation works and when it is likely to be useful can help people perform tasks (even when they do not want to) and improve their learning. you do something in order to gain an external reward. Consider the way each type considers both motivation and goals:

Intrinsic Motivation:

You are motivated to do the activity because it is internally rewarding. You choose to do it because it’s fun, enjoyable, and satisfying. Your goal comes from within, and the outcomes of your goal satisfy your basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness.

Extrinsic Motivation:

You are motivated to do the activity in order to gain an external reward in return. Your goal is focused on an outcome, and does not satisfy your basic psychological needs. Rather, it involves external gains, such as money, fame, power, and avoiding consequences. You have likely experienced both types of motivation throughout your entire life, and often, the goal of your motivations can remain the same regardless of whether the outcome is something internal or external. These extrinsic and intrinsic motivation examples illustrate this idea:

Intrinsic Extrinsic

Participating in a sport because it’s fun and you enjoy it. Participating in a sport in order to win a reward or get physically fit. Learning a new language because you like experiencing new things. Learning a new language because your job requires it. Spending time with someone because you enjoy their company. Spending time with someone because they can further your social standing. Cleaning because you enjoy a tidy space. Cleaning to avoid making your partner angry. Playing cards because you enjoy the challenge. Playing cards to win money. Exercising because you enjoy physically challenging your bodyExercising because you want to lose weight or fit into an outfit.

Volunteering because it makes you feel content and fulfilled. Volunteering in order to meet a school or work requirement. Going for a run because you find it relaxing or are trying to beat a personal record. Going for a run to increase your chances at winning a competition. Painting because it makes you feel calm and happy. Painting so you can sell your art to make money. Taking on more responsibility at work because you enjoy being challenged and feeling accomplished. Taking on more responsibility at work in order to receive a raise or promotion.

CHAPTER III FACTORS INFLUENCING MOTIVATION

3.1 THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN ALL THE STAGES OF THE MOTIVATIONAL PROCESS

Teacher motivation has become an important issue given their responsibility to impart knowledge and skills to learners. It is argued that satisfied teachers are generally more productive and can influence students’ achievement (Mertler, 1992).However, measuring the determinants and consequences of work motivation is complex because these psychological processes are not directly observable and there are numerous organizational and environmental obstacles that can affect goal attainment.

Teacher motivation depends critically on effective management, particularly at the school level. If systems and structures set up to manage and support teachers are dysfunctional, teachers are likely to lose their sense of professional responsibility and commitment. Teachers’ management is most crucial at the school level, where the importance of teachers’ work and their competence in performing it are crucially influenced by the quality of both internal and external supervision. Education in Tanzania is at a critical juncture: a potential crisis in the teaching teachers to teach effectively and at the same time, to supply some extrinsic motivation along the way for school improvementTeacher motivation is a major determinant of job performance in secondary schools. In Zimbabwe, Gullatt and Bennet (1995) argued that the need for motivated teachers is reaching ―crisis proportions in today‘s technological society undergoing fundamental changes. They add that a motivated and dedicated staff is considered as a cornerstone for the effectiveness of a school in facing the various challenges and problems posed to it.The lack of motivation is perceived to be determined by different factors such as work environment and the rewards for teachers. According to Jackson (1997), lack of motivation among teachers has been manifested in TEACHER unwillingness to participate in school activities, poor attendance, unexpected absence, late coming, lack of additional training, uncreative and non-stimulating teaching, lack of interest in meetings, unhelpful attitudes when assistance is needed, occurrence of hold-ups because deadlines aren‘t kept, resistance to contributing more than what is required of them and development of arguments between colleagues. Performance of a given school depends more on the teacher‘s effort and if that a given teacher is unhappy with his/her job, he/she will not put emphasis into his/her teaching. Rodgers Jenkinson and Chapman (1990) found that over a sustained period of time, the loss of experienced teachers hurts the quality of instruction and drives upthe costs of recruiting and training new teachers. This study aimed at finding out which factors are influencing teachers’ motivation and job performance in public secondary schools in Kibaha District.

Teachers Motivation towards Job Satisfaction

In formulating the employee grade and the corresponding salaries structure the first thing is to evaluate jobs and arrange them relative to each other in relation to complexity and skills required to perform them. This will result in what we can call job titles which later can be translated into grades with salary. The second step is to associate grades with points and the size of grades will depend on the size of organization and how diversified is its activities. Teachers continue to work after normal hours in the education system of Tanzania. Besides, a teacher has to attend to other emergencies in the school where such extra time is not considered for incentives or other motivation package. There is a tendency of heads of school to encourage teachers to stay in school to make correction and to prepare for the coming day lesson. In other situations teachers are asked to use weekends and after school hours of profession development but there is no motivation for them. This will lead to discouragement of other people from joining this field due to dissatisfaction of motivation. (Babyegeya, E. (2007).

Due to absence of motivation many teachers have been forced to supplement their meager income by offering private lesson or running their own business (Unicef 1999: 39).As teachers associated with other business for earning high income apart from teaching and learning shows they are not satisfied with their payment in the government. Teachers from rural and urban areas talk about their salaries as being too meager. Those surveyed in 2003/04 generally agreed a salary of Tsh 100,000 per month was the minimum required to lead a basic existence with Tsh 400,000 per month an adequate salary to lead an appropriate life style. The teacher pay scale at that time ranged from 70,000 to 120,000 per month (Sumra 2004 b).However the payment for teachers dissatisfy them since it fail their expectation and their needs. Therefore teachers need motivation as stimuli to reinforce them in teaching profession.
Goals for Motivation
A fourth area of Motivation and Goal Setting Theory focuses on the use of goals for motivation. Locke (1976) argues that employee motivation is likely to be enhanced if work goals are specific, challenging, formed through employee participation and reinforced by feedback. This argument raises important issues for educational system of Tanzania, in which teachers are often left to guess at what their professional goals should be, or have goals imposed on them without consideration of their views. Even where goals have been specified, feedback to teachers may be limited by infrequent contact with supervisors.Work motivation has a collective, as well as an individual dimension, which is explored by “equity theories” (see Wilson and Rosenfeld, 1990:69). Teachers compare their own efforts and rewards with those of peers. The peers in question may be in other occupations as well as within the teaching profession. Such comparisons are likely to influence teachers’ perceptions of their own status and are just as relevant to motivation in Tanzania as in industrialized countries.Patterns of motivation may be expected to depend on teachers’ personal characteristics and perceptions of their role, as well as the circumstances of their work. Williams (1998) mentions research evidence that teacher attrition (i.e. individual decisions to leave the profession permanently) is negatively related to age and positively related to intellectual capacity and educational attainment. One cannot assume that teachers’ motivation, even if it is related to attrition, necessarily has the same set of relationships. Murnane (1987), with reference to the USA, suggests that some degree-holders are attracted to teaching as a medium-term occupation rather than a permanent career. However, teachers’ age and qualifications are treated as potentially important factors in this study.Teachers’ perceptions of their role are discussed by Jessop and Penny (1998), in a qualitative study of primary school teachers in rural South Africa and Gambia. Theyidentify two distinct “frames of understanding” about teaching, described as“instrumental” and “relational,” which affect the way teachers discuss job satisfaction and motivation. The individual teachers studied are classified according to whether they lean towards one frame or the other. The authors find that instrumental teachers, who see education mainly as a technical process, are more likely to show concern about the inadequacy of physical resources for learning, support from inspectors and extrinsic incentives. Relational teachers, however, see education mainly as a moral activity and are motivated mainly by a nurturing relationship with students. The typical complaints of this group are not mentioned and one is left to assume that they complain less. The authors argue that neither group perceives “ownership” of the curriculum as a goal. From the perspective of Maslow, however, this is not surprising if the teachers are poorly paid and little respected by their supervisors. The categories developed by Jessop and Penny can be compared with those of researchers in other settings, such as the “student-oriented,” “subject-oriented” and “benefits-oriented” categories used by Griffiths, Gottman and McFarland (1965).
Problems of Teacher’s Motivation
According to Cole (2004), motivation is the term used to describe those processes both instinctive and rationale, by which people seek to satisfy the basic drives, perceived needs and personal goals, which trigger human behavior. Bateman and Snell (2007) also define motivation as the forces that energize, direct, and sustain a persons’ effort. All behavior, except involuntary reflexes like (eye blinks) which have little to do with management, is motivated. A high motivated person will work hard toward achieving performance goal. With adequate ability and understanding of the job, such a person will be highly productive. According to sociologists, current school environments are a reward-scarce setting for professional work and often seem to work against teachers’ best efforts to grow professionally and improve student learning (Peterson 1995). Frase (1992), shows that many good teachers leave teaching in the first three years because they lack motivation. A motivated teacher is one who not only feels satisfied with his or her job, but also is empowered to strive for excellence and growth in instructional practice.In developed countries, pay incentives have been found to be generally ineffective in increasing teacher motivation. Teacher motivation is based on intrinsic factors and that true job satisfaction is based on higher order needs (Sylvia and Hutchinson, 1994). Offering additional extrinsic motivation has even been found to undermine the intrinsic motivation of teachers (Deci et al, 1999). Spear et al (2000) highlights the wide range of factors that influence teachers’ job satisfaction and motivation in the United Kingdom. The main factor found to contribute to job satisfaction of teachers was working with children whereas job dissatisfaction was primarily attributed to work overload, poor pay, and perceptions of how teachers are viewed by society.Research on teacher motivation in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia by Bennell and Akyeampong (2007) show that teachers’ in many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are being asked to change radically TEACHING practices at a time when the majority of them are increasingly de-motivated. The study shows that the major problems of poor motivation includes teacher deployment, teacher turnover which results to high attrition rate, that is occupational attrition (teachers leaving the profession to take up other jobs) and teacher absenteeism. Also turnover rates were very significant, particularly in rural areas, due to limited employment and further study opportunities, poor working and living conditions, and the low quality of schooling available for teachers’ own children. Where teachers and the education system are poorly managed, this will have a negative impact on teachers’ morale and motivation.

3.2 ADOPTING A MOTIVATIONAL TEACHING PRACTICE

The relationship of teaching strategies, learners’ motivation and learners’ academic performances Since motivation is acknowledged as a key factor in determining success in foreign or second language learning academic attainment, strategies that maintain language learners’ motivation are of interest to educators. A number of studies have been conducted by educational researchers in order to gain a better understanding of how language learners’ motivation can be positively affected during the language learning process (Bernaus & Gardner, 2008; Dornyei & Csizer, 1998). Nakata (2006) states that unlike aptitude, which cannot be changed since it is innate, motivation can fluctuate factor over time. Nakata (2006), Brophy (2010) and Dornyei (2001a) contend that the fluctuation of motivation, academic achievement and the amount of the effort exerted may be affected by two main factors; internal and external factors (teachers, parents, peers, and community). This means motivation of students is something a teacher can influence. As described earlier, motivation can be developed by interactions between the learner and external factors, including teachers, parents, and peers (Bernaus & Gardner, 2008; Brophy, 2010; Dornyei, 1994; Sugita & Takeuchi, 2010). Among those external factors that influence students’ motivation in learning a foreign language, the teachers’ teaching strategies and practices play a more significant role than the rest (Chambers, 1998; Cheng & Dornyei, 2007; Dornyei, 1998; Dornyei, 2001a; Gan, Humphreys & Hamp-lyon, 2004; Guilloteaux & Dornyei, 2008; Trang & Baldauf, 2007). These studies highlight the fact that “the teacher’s level of enthusiasm and commitment is one of the most important factors that affect the learners’ motivation” (Dornyei, 1998, p.130) and teachers’ choices of strategies in the classroom affect students’ motivation to learn. Student participant in Trang and Baldauf’s (2007) study of demotivation in English language learning in a Vietnamese context came to conclusion that the participants were in agreement that teachers’ contributed to their motivation to learn English. Amongst the four demotivating categories related to language teachers, teaching methods were considered the primary source of students’ demotivation. This explicitly indicated that teachers and their use of teaching methods had a strong impact on students’ demotivation or motivation to learn. A subsequent review of studies examining beginning teachers’ perceptions of problems they often face in the classroom found that motivating pupils was the second most serious problem that the teachers encountered (Vennman, as cited in Dornyei, 2001a). Thus, the teachers’ role in the language learning process should not be underestimated. Students’ levels of foreign language proficiency are influenced by attitudes, motivation, teachers and classroom experiences. Nikolov (1999) found that students’ motivation and proficiency in the development of their foreign language skills were strongly related to experiences they gained in the classroom. Being a significant part of the classroom environment, teachers obviously affect both students’ motivation in learning and their academic attainment. Students may be motivated to learn if the teacher provides the students with the appropriate conditions in the classroom and utilizes motivational teaching strategies (Dornyei, 2001a). To this end, by adopting a qualitative approach, Dornyei (1998) interviewed 50 secondary school learners, studying either English or German as a foreign language in various schools in Budapest and found that of all the demotivating factors ranked by these students, teacher-related factors were ranked as the most important. Teacher-related factors were: the teachers’ personality, the teachers’ commitment to teaching, the level attention teachers paid to students, the teachers’ competences, the teaching method, teachers’ style and their rapport with students. Additionally, Guilloteaux and Dornyei (2008) in their recent investigation into the motivational teaching practices used by English language teachers in South Korea point out that there was significant correlation between the language teachers’ motivational teaching practices and increased levels of the learners’ motivated behaviours in learning English as the foreign language in this study context. In this quantitative study, 27 language teachers and 1,381 students from 40 classes of junior high schools took part. Three different types of data collection instruments were employed in this study; namely a classroom observation scheme, a student questionnaire and a teacher evaluation scale. This study concluded that the teachers’ motivational teaching practice was directly related to the students’ immediate response in the classroom and their approach to classroom learning. Though the teachers participating in this research implemented a limited range of motivational strategies in their practices due to the lack of knowledge and training, the researchersfound there was a positive connection between the motivational language teaching strategies used by teachers and student’ motivation in the context of study. Similarly, in their large scale quantitative study in investigating factors that students perceived as motivators/demotivators in their learning in college classes in West Virginia University in USA, Gorham and Christopher (1992) came to the conclusion that students frequently perceived teacher-related factors such as teachers’ negative behaviours to be the main cause of their decreased motivation in their learning. Learners lacking motivation tend to attribute their failure to their teacher. Gan et al., (2004) conducted a qualitative study concerning unsuccessful and successful college students’ learning experiences in learning English in one Chinese university. Other studies agree that unsuccessful language learners mostly attribute their lack of success to factors outside themselves; in Gan and colleagues’ study students blamed their language teachers, saying that the teachers were not supportive of them and their teaching style was boring. In conclusion, students always located inadequacies in their learning environment, particularly their teachers. Based on the previous illustrated studies it is clear that teachers influence their students’ level of motivation to engage in classroom activities. Enhancing students’ motivation is an ongoing process as motivation to learn fluctuates. It requires hard work by teachers and persistence in creating suitable and effective strategies in teaching the second/foreign language in their classrooms. Teachers do not have complete control over their students’ motivation; nonetheless they can significantly initiate and maintain it by providing a supportive language learning atmosphere in the classroom through their motivational teaching strategies. Teachers have theprimary responsibility to shape better learning environments for their foreign language learners (Hedge, 2000; Nakata, 2006). By taking the findings of his study as the reference, in which 11 year old students were asked to give reasons for enjoying or not enjoying any previous foreign language learning experiences that they had been through, Chambers (1998), just like Nakata (2006), argues that teachers and their use of teaching strategies affect a student’s attitude toward an academic subject, and that teachers carry a large responsibility to motivate their students. What teachers do is therefore the key determinant for motivating language learners. Dornyei maintains that “teachers’ skills in motivating learners should be seen as central to teaching effectiveness” (2001b, p.116). Teachers have the responsibility to provide opportunities for learning and to encourage language learners to realize their potential and maximize their progress. The class environment is an important factor in the development of interest in and enjoyment for studying a second/foreign language (Song, 2005). It is important for language teachers to realize that providing a safe and non-face threatening learning environment is crucial for strengthening and preserving students’ motivation. In stressing the role of teachers in a second/foreign language classroom, Lightbown and Spada (2006) assert that: If teachers can make their classroom places where students enjoy coming because the content is interesting and relevant to their age and level of ability, where the learning goals are challenging yet manageable and clear, and where the atmosphere is supportive and non-threatening, we can make a positive contribution to students’ motivation to learn. (p.57) Teachers have control over the learning environment, which plays a crucial role in students’ motivation to learn. Motivational strategies in teaching English as a second/foreign language How to engage and motivate students through motivational teaching strategies has engaged second/foreign language researchers due to its significant contribution to academic performance and achievement in learning a second/foreign language. Dornyei states that “motivational strategies refer to those motivational influences that are consciously exerted to achieve some systematic and enduring positive effects” (2001a, p. 28). In addition, Guilloteaux and Dornyei define motivational strategies as “instructional interventions applied by the teacher to elicit and stimulate students’ motivation” (2008, p.56). Dornyei further contends that “they are techniques that promote the individual’s goal-related behaviour” (2001b, p.28). Motivational teaching strategies are thus steps or techniques employed by teachers in their teaching practices to facilitate students’ motivation in learning a second/foreign language. The motivational strategies in teaching a second/foreign language are usually “grounded in sound theoretical considerations” (Guilloteaux & Dornyei, 2008, p.56). While effective and motivational teaching strategies have been proposed by scholars in education and educational psychology areas, few were specifically contributed by second/foreign language scholars. The most notable framework in the area of second/foreign language that can accommodate diverse teaching strategies was established by Dornyei (2001b). His model for motivational second/foreign language teaching practice comprising four main dimensions is presented below

MOTIVATIONAL TEACHING STRATEGIES

Creating basic motivational conditions Laying the foundations of motivation through establishing a good teacher-student rapport, creating a pleasant and supportive classroom atmosphere, and generating a cohesive learner group with appropriate group norms. Generating initial motivation, that is, “whetting the students’ appetite”, by enhancing the learners’ language-related values and attitudes, increasing the learners’ goal-orientedness, making the teaching materials relevant for the learners, and creating realistic learners beliefs. Maintaining and protecting motivation by making learning stimulating, presenting tasks in a motivating way, setting specific learners’ goal, protecting the learners’ self-esteem and increasing their self-confidence, allowing learners to maintain a positive social image, promoting cooperation among the learners, creating learner autonomy and promoting self-motivating learner strategies. Encouraging positive retrospective self-evaluation by promoting motivational attributions, providing motivational feedback, increasing learner satisfaction, and offering rewards and grades in a motivating manner. The framework is based on Dornyei’s systematic overview of the extensive motivational techniques in teaching a second/foreign language (Dornyei, 2001b). The four dimensions include the macro-strategies associated with each dimension. Each dimension is associated with at least thirty macro-strategies, each of which was broken down into about one hundred micro-strategies in teaching a second/foreign language. This extensive list of recommended motivational teaching strategies has been frequently and widely utilised and modified by researchers to discover what specific strategies are perceived by students or language teachers as beneficial for the students’ motivation in their particular context. In the past, few studies aimed to find out whether the proposed strategies actually work in language classrooms (Dornyei & Csizer, 1998). The fact that there may be a discrepancy between the assumed and the actual motivational power of certain teaching strategies in second/foreign language learning has concerned second/foreign language scholars. Therefore, the existing recommended teaching strategies should be regarded as mere hypotheses to be tested in determining what strategies work in a certain second/foreign language classroom.

The relationship of teaching strategies, learners’ motivation and learners’ academic performances Since motivation is acknowledged as a key factor in determining success in foreign or second language learning academic attainment, strategies that maintain language learners’ motivation are of interest to educators. A number of studies have been conducted by educational researchers in order to gain a better understanding of how language learners’ motivation can be positively affected during the language learning process (Bernaus & Gardner, 2008; Dornyei & Csizer, 1998). Nakata (2006) states that unlike aptitude, which cannot be changed since it is innate, motivation can fluctuate factor over time. Nakata (2006), Brophy (2010) and Dornyei (2001a) contend that the fluctuation of motivation, academic achievement and the amount of the effort exerted may be affected by two main factors; internal and external factors (teachers, parents, peers, and community). This means motivation of students is something a teacher can influence. As described earlier, motivation can be developed by interactions between the learner and external factors, including teachers, parents, and peers (Bernaus & Motivational teaching strategies in teaching ESL/EFL based on language learners’ perceptions. Language teachers may be a very relevant and valuable source of insights regarding what teaching strategies/methods work effectively to increase their students’ motivation to learn a second/foreign language. However, many studies have not included the voice of one of the biggest stakeholders in second/foreign language learning: that is the learners. Learner’ voices should not be neglected, since teachers may not be aware of students’ motivation: When teachers say that a student is motivated, they are not usually concerning themselves with the students’ reason for studying, but are observing that the student does study, or at least engage in teacher-desired behaviour in the classroom and possibly outside it. (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991, p.480) These scholars imply that the effectiveness of strategies in teaching L2/FL should not solely be measured by gaining teachers’ opinions and perceptions about their use and effectiveness. It is also important for educators to pay attention to what students believe in this aspect, as students’ own perceptions and beliefs may be as relevant as the perceptions of teachers, external observers or general beliefs about it as described in the literature. In responding to this matter, Deniz (2010) employed a quantitative study to gather students’ perceptions of some motivational approaches applied by teachers in second/foreign language learning. This study studies the views of students of the English Language Teaching (ELT) Department of the Education Faculty in one university in Turkey. The motivational strategies scale developed by Dornyei (2001b) was employed as the instrument to gather the data from 179 student-teachers, comprising 42 males and 137 females. This study found that student-teachers’ motivation was closely aligned with Dornyei’s motivational teaching strategies (“ten commandments”) although those ten motivational strategies were not frequently employed by teachers in the classrooms. Moreover, the student-teachers observed that their teachers showed variation in the use of those motivational teaching strategies.

Motivational teaching strategies based on second/foreign language teachers’ perceptions.

In the past, motivational psychologists have been more concerned about what motivation is than about how we can use this knowledge to motivate learners. Most research has been conducted on identifying various motives or validating theories in motivation rather than establishing substantive techniques to increase it. Recently, however, there has been a marked shift and more researchers have decided to look at the pedagogical implications of research by conceptualising motivational teaching strategies. A number of scholars have proposed and published slightly different frameworks or lists of recommended teaching strategies likely to motivate students to learn (for example Brophy, 2010; Dornyei, 1994; Kumaradivelu, 1994; Oxford & Shearin, 1994; Williams & Burden, 1997). These are intended to be applied by classroom practitioners in improving their teaching practice. However, most of the frameworks were primarily derived from either teaching experiences or the scholars’ own beliefs about the effectiveness of those frameworks within their classrooms. Foreign language teaching and learning has often been undertaken with strategies based more on intuition than scientific inquiry (Park & Lee, 2006). Similarly, most of those diverse techniques recommended lacked supporting empirical evidence. In relation to his own earlier framework of motivational teaching strategies, Dornyei admitted that many of its components have been verified by very little or no empirical research in the field of L2” (1994, p.283). Nevertheless, Dornyei addressed this issue in studies of teaching and semi-formal interviews amongst two groups of graduate students and a group of international teachers on a British Council summer course. Dornyei then developed a set of motivational teaching strategies that he refers to as the “Semiintuitive set of ten motivational macro-strategies” (Dornyei, 1996). The relationship between second/foreign language learners and teachers’ perceptions of motivational teaching strategies. Teachers of foreign/second language and their students may not share the same notions of effective and motivational strategies in teaching a second/foreign language. This possible mismatch of perceptions related to effective teaching strategies/methods should be taken into consideration by teachers (Williams & Burden, 1997). Moreover, Kern (1995) as cited in Brown (2009) and Schulz (1996) argued that “mismatches between foreign language students’ and teachers’ expectation can negatively affect the students’ satisfaction with the language class” (p.46), and this may lead to decreased motivation in learning the target language or even to the discontinuation of second/foreign language learning. Despite the possible impact of mismatched perceptions, few studies (Brosh, 1996; Bernaus & Gardner, 2008; Park & Lee, 2006; Sugita & Takeuchi, 2010) have specifically compared and contrasted individual teacher’s perceptions of motivational teaching strategies with those of their students. Studies that focus on teaching strategies and characteristics in second/foreign language learning that allow comparisons of perceptions or opinions between teachers and their respective students are uncommon. One study that incorporates the teachers’ and students’ perspectives is Bernaus and Gardner’s (2008), which argues that even though various teaching strategies proposed are generally beneficial to improve teachers’ understanding of strategies that work effectively, there is a possibility that students’ and teachers’ perceptions about motivational teaching strategies do not match or correspond to each other. Their quantitative study of 31 EFL teachers and 694 students took place in Catalonia, Spain. By employing the modified Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) developed by Gardner in the 1950s (Gardner, as cited in Gonzales, 2010) as the instrument of this study, Bernaus and Gardner aimed to investigate teachers’ and students’ perceptions of strategy use and the effect of those teaching strategies on students’ motivation to pursue foreign language learning. The result showed that students and teachers agreed on the use of some strategies but not on the use of others. Most students perceived the strategies used related to their own attitudes and motivation, while teachers did not think the teaching strategies they employed affected students’ attitudes and motivation (Bernaus & Gardner, 2008). The study concluded that motivation was a positive predictor of English achievement of students in this study context. Likewise, motivation was claimed by the participants as one variable affecting towards the learners’ achievement in language learning. In another study, Sugita and Takeuchi (2010) aimed to give a clearer description of the teachers’ actual use of 15 motivational teaching strategies and to examine the relationship between the frequency of those 15 motivational strategies, the strength of students’ motivation induced by these strategies and differences in the strategymotivation relationship depending on students’ English proficiency levels. The 15 strategies used in this study were selected from Dornyei’s 102 motivational teaching micro-strategies. Two different questionnaires were administered several times within two months to five Japanese English teachers in a public secondary school and 190 of these teachers’ students in the nine classes in Kyoto (Japan) in which they taught English as a foreign language.

Conclusion

This case study has gained pertinent insights on the information regarding the type and level of motivation that influence students the most. The discussions highlight that majority of the students are instrumentally motivated, yet lack commitment in mastering the language. There is a need to motivate the students more integratively, so that they will learn the language with proactive attitudes, continue learning during after school English classes and enjoy the learning process by not seeing it as an extra burden to their study. It is recommended that the teachers should select English literature texts or topics that arouse students’ interests and improve their vocabulary and grammar respectively. This case study has its limitations, because only twelve (12) students were involved. The students came from a particular class of a private Chinese school in Penang, hence the findings of this research may not be completely generalised. Furthermore, only one method was utilised in this research with a small sample size to gauge students’ perspectives. Therefore, the findings of this case study can be further followed up by a research using a larger sample size and include different types of participants from various other locations.

Feedback should be as informative as possible to student-teachers. These findings revealed that student-teachers expected feedback to be informative for them, instead of just giving a grade. Student-teachers wished that lecturers would explain in verbal or written concrete terms to them, what they had done wrong and what they could do to improve it as often as possible. Likewise, they wanted lecturers to provide sufficient comments on their work so that student-teachers understood why they earned the grade. Whenever it is not feasible to give feedback to each studentteachers privately and in a timely manner (as expected by the student-teachers) as a result of lecturers’ workloads and the prescribed time allocation of each class, lecturers could then employ “communal feedback” through classroom meetings or emails as the solution, as a few lecturers have successfully practised in this study context.

Researchers

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