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2- Online planning:
Online planning, on the other hand, is defined by Yuan & Ellis (2003: 6), as the process by which speakers attend carefully to the "formulation stage" during speech planning (Yuan and Ellis, 2003: 6). Hence, the difference between prespeaking planning and on-line planning is that the latter is directed primarily at the first stage of speech processing “conceptualization” (planning propositional content), while on-line planning allows time to attend more closely to “formulation”- grammar and vocabulary. On-line planning happens inside the speaker’s mind; the speaker always thinks during speaking about the words and structures he/she uses. This means that time is of obvious importance for the planning and execution of speech acts during performance (Ryo, 2005). Allowing learners more time to speak is hypothesized to assist the on-line planning and production of speech acts in the following ways:
* It allows the speaker to search his linguistic resources, especially grammatical, during the formulation stage.
* It facilitates the process of pre-production and post-production monitoring. With regards to the effects of these two types of planning on linguistic performance (fluency, accuracy and complexity), it was found out that on-line planning enables learners to improve grammatical accuracy but results in reduced fluency. Pre-task planning, on the other hand, encourages attention to message conveyance that is reflected in both greater fluency and greater lexical variety (Ellis, 2003: 126 and Yuan, & Ellis, 2003: 23).
Therefore, the cognitive approach assumes that it is possible that if learners were able to both pre-plan and plan on-line, the problems of their limited capacity would be reduced and they would be able to give adequate attention to all aspects of language during speaking (Ellis, 2003: 127 and Yuan & Ellis, 2003: 24).
Explicit vs. implicit speaking instruction
The implicit approach of speaking instruction involves setting up lifelike communicative situations in the language classroom and leading learners to acquire communicative skills incidentally by seeking meaning. Theoretical concepts that underpin implicit approaches are related to ‘skill-using' and 'communicative practice' (Celce-Murcia et al, 1997: 141; Burns, 1998: 103 & Hedge, 2000). The explicit approach, on the other hand, includes the process of ‘skill-getting’ where learners focus on specific micro-skills, strategies and processes involved in speaking. Teaching following this approach adapts various features of direct grammar instruction to the teaching of conversational skills (Dornyei & Thurrell, 1994: 41 and Hedge, 2000).
Cognitive approach theorists support the use of explicit instruction. They argue that this kind of instruction enables learners to acquire explicit knowledge which helps them to monitor their language use (Ellis, 2003: 160). It facilitates noticing of new forms and make possible for students to notice the gap (compare what is noticed in the input with what learners are producing themselves). Explicit instruction of speaking skills, according to Ellis (2002: 164), can be carried out via 78 direct teaching or discovery learning. The most important strategy pertinent to the latter is “raising consciousness”.
Conclusion
Reviewing the previous studies in the three sections, it can be concluded that:
* There is evidence that communicative tasks have a positive effect on developing speaking competencies: (linguistic, pragmatic, discourse and strategic) as well as fluency.
* Many factors related to task type can affect spoken performance (complex tasks elicit more accurate and complex oral production while simple tasks elicit more fluent language) – (interpretive tasks produce greater complexity than tasks based on explaining set processes)- (two way tasks are better than one-way tasks)- (convergent tasks produce more negotiation of meaning than divergent tasks) - (students who are familiar to each others interact better than unfamiliar students)- (unfamiliar tasks lead to more interaction on the part of students while familiar ones lead to greater organization and greater language complexity).
* Techniques suggested by the cognitive approach to develop speaking proved to be effective in developing learners' speaking sub-skills as well as in giving them the potential of self -directed learning. The key techniques suggested are:
- Explicit instruction
- Consciousness raising
- Data-driven learning
- Self –evaluation
- Planning before speaking and during speaking
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