Theme: Speaking as an interactive process Table of content

Theme: Speaking as an interactive process

Table of content

Introduction

Purpose of the study

1. The speaking skill

1.1 Defining Speaking
1.2 Aspects of speaking
1.3 Purpose of speaking
1.4 Speaking genres
1.5 Speaking sub-skills

2. Communicative Tasks and teaching speaking

2.1 Theoretical rational for tasks
2.2 Definition of communicative tasks
2.3 Task components
2.4 Advantages of tasks in speaking instruction
2.5 Classifications of communicative tasks
2.6 Pedagogical proposals of tackling tasks

3 The cognitive approach to language teaching

3.1 The cognitive approach and language learning
3.2 Concepts underlying the cognitive approach
3.3 The information processing model
3.4 The cognitive approach and speaking instruction
3.5 Planning and oral production
3.6 Explicit vs. implicit speaking instruction

Conclusion

Bibliography
Introduction
Language is a tool for thinking and passing down culture from one generation to the next, as well as from one country to the next. It's also a way for people to communicate with one another. As a result, many governments place a premium on teaching residents languages other than their native tongue. English has risen to become the world's most important foreign language in the previous three decades. English is now the language of worldwide communication, research, commerce, advertising, diplomacy, and advanced technology transmission. It has also evolved into a "lingua franca" among speakers of non-interoperable languages. Furthermore, in this age of "globalism," the interconnection of nations and countries necessitates the use of a global language, and no language qualifies better than English for this purpose. The international position of English is a crucial factor contributing to its growing relevance in Egypt. In reality, English has become a valuable tool for anyone looking for work in Egypt's commercial, industry, or technological sectors. As a result, the primary goal of English instruction in secondary schools is to prepare students to communicate in English so that they can enter the labor market and meet the rigors of higher education. As a result, the necessity for Egyptian EFL secondary school students to be equipped with effective speaking skills, as the most significant mode of communication, has developed, and more emphasis on spoken English at the secondary level has been placed.
One of the four language abilities is speaking (reading, writing, listening and speaking). It is the mechanism through which students can communicate with others in order to attain specific objectives or to convey their thoughts, intentions, hopes, and perspectives. Furthermore, persons who know a language are known as'speakers' of that language. Furthermore, speaking is the most commonly used language skill in practically any situation. Speaking is employed twice as frequently as reading and writing in our communication, according to Rivers. Speaking and writing are sometimes equated since they are both "productive skills," as opposed to the "receptive skills" of reading and listening. As two interrelated techniques of conducting communication, speaking is likewise intimately related to listening. Every speaker is simultaneously a listener and every listener is at least potentially a speaker. Speaking has been classified to monologue and dialogue. The former focuses on giving an interrupted oral presentation and the latter on interacting with other speakers. Speaking can also serve one of two main functions: transactional (transfer of information) and intersectional (maintenance of social relationships). Developing speaking skills is of vital importance in EFL/ESL programs. Nunan (1999) and Burkart & Sheppard (2004) argue that success in learning a language is measured in terms of the ability to carry out a conversation in the (target) language. Therefore, speaking is probably a priority for most learners of English (Florez, 1999). Speaking instruction is important because it helps students acquire EFL speaking skills thus converse spontaneously and naturally with native speakers. Furthermore, if the right speaking activities are taught in the classroom, speaking can raise general learners' motivation and make the English language classroom a fun and dynamic place to be. In addition, speaking can support other language skills. Recent research has considered oral interaction as an important factor in the shaping of the learner's developing language. For instance, it was proved that learning speaking can help the development of reading competence, the development of writing as well as the development of listening skills (Regina, 1997). Taking into account the importance of developing EFL speaking skills, it is vital to determine the speaking skills SL/ FL learners have to acquire in order to converse with native language speakers.
Florez (1999) highlights the following skills underlying speaking: Using grammar structures accurately; Assessing characteristics of the target audience, including shared knowledge, status and power relations, or differences in perspectives; Selecting vocabulary that is understandable and appropriate for the audience, the topic being discussed, and the setting in which the speech act occurs; Applying strategies to enhance comprehensibility, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, or checking for listener's comprehension; Paying attention to the success of the interaction and adjusting components of speech such as vocabulary, rate of speech, and complexity of grammar structures to maximize listener's comprehension and involvement. A careful examination of all previously mentioned speaking skills emphasizes that speaking is a high complex mental activity which differs from other activities because it requires much greater effort of the central nervous system. It comprises sub processes as well as other planning areas. The speaker must first recall words and phrases from memory and put them in a syntactically and proportionately acceptable order. Speaking occurs in the setting of restricted processing capacity due to working memory limits, resulting in a 16 demand for routinization or automation in each sector of production. This implies that the speaker should comprehend the information he hears as soon as possible. Speaking also necessitates some form of monitoring during and after speech creation, as well as the management of communication under a variety of external constraints.
Taking into consideration the current view of speaking as a complex skill and a multi-facets cognitive process, it is important then to consider more closely the features of effective instruction that can facilitate the acquisition of these skills and processes by SL/ FL learners. Op randy (1994) and Nunan (1999) propose that effective instruction should be characterized by the following:
* The whole should be more important than the parts. This means that both synthetic and analytical procedures used to teach speaking should share a common concern with the whole rather than the parts.
* Instruction should enable learners to reflect on their own as well as on others' processes and strategies in an active way.
* There should be ample opportunities for interacting to expand the repertoire of experiences with the target language with its various idealization, interpersonal and textual functions for which speech is used.
* There should be opportunities for learners to practice both linguistic and communicative competencies.
However, despite the importance of developing speaking skills among ESL/ EFL learners, instruction of these speaking skills has received the least attention, and many English teachers still spend the majority of class time in reading and writing practice almost ignoring speaking skills.
A broad examination of the many techniques to teaching EFL speaking finds that two approaches have dominated: direct and indirect. "Skill acquisition" is part of the direct approach. It is tightly controlled and aids learners in concentrating on isolated and rehearsed aspects of speaking proficiency. Pattern practice exercises, analysis of spoken genre structures, and activities in which learners develop rules inductively are all included (Ellis, 1994). By focusing on the production of 'genuine' and usable language, the indirect approach improves learners' autonomy. The primary focus is on communicative tasks mediated by negotiation and information sharing. (Ellis, 2003). This is related to concepts such as 'skill using', 'real life' and 'whole task' practice. They include activities such as: One of the four language abilities is speaking (reading, writing, listening and speaking). It is the mechanism through which students can communicate with others in order to attain specific objectives or to convey their thoughts, intentions, hopes, and perspectives. Furthermore, persons who know a language are known as speakers' of that language. Furthermore, speaking is the most commonly used language skill in practically any situation. Speaking is employed twice as frequently as reading and writing in our communication, according to Rivers (1981). Speaking and writing are sometimes equated since they are both "productive skills," as opposed to the "receptive skills" of reading and listening. As two interrelated techniques of conducting communication, speaking is likewise intimately related to listening.
This study aimed at:
1- Determining the requisite speaking skills for first-year secondary school pupils.
2- Identifying acceptable strategies for constructing a task-based program to strengthen the speaking skills of first-year secondary students in light of the cognitive approach.
3- Developing a planned curriculum to improve the speaking abilities of first-year secondary school pupils.
4- Assessing the effectiveness of the suggested curriculum in improving first-year secondary students' overall speaking ability as well as sub-skills.

1.1 The speaking skill

Defining Speaking
After reviewing prior research on defining speaking, it was discovered that there are two basic approaches to defining speaking: bottom-up and top-down approaches. Bygate (1987: 5-6) explains the bottom up paradigm by stating that previously, the focus in speaking was on motor perceptual skills. Speaking is defined in this sense as the generation of auditory signals intended to elicit varied verbal responses in a listener. It is defined as the systematic combination of sounds according to language-specific principles to generate meaningful utterances. This is the strategy taken by audio-lingualism. Finally, the bottom-up method to teaching speaking implies that we should begin with the simplest units-sounds-and progress via mastery of words and sentences to conversation. The problem with this approach is that it ignores the interactive and social aspects of speaking, focusing primarily on its psychometric sense. Furthermore, ensuring a smooth transition from ostensible classroom study to real-world use of the skill is difficult. Bygate (1998: 23) proposes a definition of speaking based on intersectional skills, such as communication decision-making. Speaking from the top down is known as a top-down perspective. Eckard and Kearny (1981), Florez (1999), and Howarth (2001) adopt this viewpoint and define speaking as a two–way procedure including true transmission of ideas, facts, or feelings. This top-down view considers the spoken texts the product of cooperation between two or more interact ants in shared time, and a shared physical context. Thus, proponents of this view suggest that, rather than teaching learners to make well-formed sentences and then -putting these to use in discourse we should encourage learners to take part in spoken discourse from the beginning and then they will acquire the smaller units (Nunan, 1989, 32).
Burns & Joyce (1997) and Luoma (2004: 2), in an attempt to expand on the interactive character of speaking, define speaking as an interactive process of generating meaning that involves producing, receiving, and processing information. Its shape and meaning are determined by the circumstances, which include the participants, the physical surroundings, and the reasons for speaking. It is frequently unscripted, open-ended, and dynamic. Speech, on the other hand, is not always predictable. It is possible to identify language functions (or patterns) that tend to reoccur in specific discourse circumstances. Speaking is defined as the learner's ability to communicate himself or herself orally, coherently, fluently, and appropriately in a given relevant environment, and it is this latter technique that is used in the current study.

Aspects of speaking

Aspects of speaking skill must eventually be examined and considered. These elements create certain challenges, necessitating the creation of criteria for understanding this ability and, as a result, instructional activities that prepare learners to communicate successfully in real-life situations.

• 
  Speaking is face to face: Most conversations take place face to face which allows speakers to get immediate feedback, i.e. “Do listeners understand? Are they in agreement? Do they sympathize (Cornbleet &Carter, 2001: 16). Thus communication through speaking has many assets, such as facial expressions, gestures and even body movements. Speaking also occurs, most of the time, in situations where participants or interlocutors are present. Such factors facilitate communication (El Fayoumy, 1997: 10, Widdowson, 1998 & Burns, 1998).
  

• 
  Speaking is interactive: Whether we are speaking face-to –face or over the telephone, to one person or a small group, the wheels of conversation usually turn smoothly, with participants offering contributions at appropriate moments, with no undue gaps 35 or everyone talking over each other (Bygate, 1998: 30 and Cornbleet & Carter, 2001: 27) Turn taking, a main feature in interaction, is an unconscious part of normal conversation. Turn takings are handled and signaled differently across different cultures, thus causing possible communication difficulties in conversation between people of different cultures and languages (Mc Donough & Mackey, 2000: 84).
  
• 
  Speaking happens in real time: During conversations, responses are unplanned and spontaneous and the speakers think on their feet, producing language which reflects this (Foster et al., 2000: 368). These time constraints affect the speaker's ability to plan, to organize the message, and to control the language being used. Speakers often start to say something and change their mind midway; which is termed a false start. The speaker's sentences also cannot be as long or as complex as in writing. Similarly, speakers occasionally forget things they intended to say; or they may even forget what they have already said, and so they repeat themselves (Miller, 2001: 27). This implies that the production of speech in real time imposes pressures, but also allows freedoms in terms of compensating for these difficulties. The use of formulaic expressions, hesitation devices, self correction, rephrasing and repetition can help speakers become more fluent and cope with real time demands (Bygate, 1987: 21; Foster et al, 2000 and Hughes, 2002: 76). Actually, exposing students to these spoken discourse features facilitates their oral production and helps them compensate for the problems they encounter. It also helps them sound normal in their use of the foreign language.
  

Purpose of speaking

The aim of speaking might be transactional or interactive, according to the argument. It appears that the spoken language employed in transactional and interaction discourse differs in certain ways. Language is largely employed to communicate information in transactional dialogue. The language used for this purpose is focused toward the message rather than the listener (Nunan, 1989: 27). Clearly, accurate and consistent conveyance of the information, as well as confirmation that the message has been comprehended, are critical in this type of contact. News broadcasts, descriptions, narrations, and directions are examples of language employed largely for transactional purposes (Richards, 1990: 54- 55). Speaking turns for this purpose are usually long and entail some prior content organization as well as the use of linguistic strategies to signal the organization or type of information to be conveyed (Basturkmen, 2002: 26). Some chats, on the other hand, are interactive with the goal of building or maintaining a relationship. The latter is sometimes referred to as interpersonal language use. It has a significant social role to play in 38 lubricating the wheels of social interaction (Yule, 1989: 169). Greets, small conversation, and compliments are examples of interactional language use. The vocabulary utilized in the interactional mode appears to be listener-oriented. In this case, speakers' remarks are usually confined to a few brief turns (Dornyei & Thurrell, 1994: 43 and Richards, 1990: 54-55). Despite the distinctions between the two types of language, most situations include interactional and transactional language. This makes transactional duties easier to do by maintaining solid social relationships with others. To put it another way, speakers do one thing while doing another (Brazil, 1995: 29). As a result, these functions might be considered two degrees of spoken engagement.
Analyzing speaking purposes more precisely, Kingen (2000: 218) combines both the transactional and interpersonal purposes of speaking into an extensive list of twelve categories as follows:

1. 
   Personal - expressing personal feelings, opinions, beliefs and ideas.
   

1. 
   Descriptive- describing someone or something, real or imagined.
   
2. 
   Narrative-creating and telling stories or chronologically sequenced events.
   
3. 
   Instructive-giving instructions or providing directions designed to produce an outcome.
   
4. 
   Questioning-asking questions to obtain information.
   
5. 
   Comparative-comparing two or more objects, people, ideas, or opinions to make judgments about them.
   
6. 
   Imaginative-expressing mental images of people, places, events, and objects.
   
7. 
   Predictive-predicting possible future events.
   
8. 
   Interpretative-exploring meanings, creating hypothetical deductions, and considering inferences.
   
9. 
   Persuasive-changing others’ opinions, attitudes, or points of view, or influencing the behavior of others in some way.
   
10. 
    Explanatory-explaining, clarifying, and supporting ideas and opinions.
    
11. 
    Informative-sharing information with others
    

This list correspond closely to the language functions explained by Halliday (1975).

Speaking genres

The genre theory assumes that different speech events result in different types of texts, which are distinct in terms of their overall structure and kinds of grammatical items typically associated with them (Hughes, 2002: 83). Carter and McCarthy (1997) classify speaking extracts in terms of genres as follows: h Narrative: A series of everyday anecdotes told with active listener participation. h Identifying: Extracts in which people talk about themselves, their biography, where they live, their jobs, their likes and dislikes. h Language-in-action: Data recorded while people are doing things such as cooking, packing, moving furniture… etc. h Comment-elaboration: People giving casual opinions and commenting on things, other people, events and so on. h Debate and argument: Data, in which people take up positions, pursue arguments and expound on their opinions. h Decision-making and negotiating outcomes: Data illustrating ways in which people work towards decisions/consensus or negotiate their way through problems towards solutions. It is recognized that no speech genre can be entirely discrete; for example, narratives can be embedded within other main generic categories. Furthermore, speaking genres overlap with language functions explained before.

Speaking sub-skills

Many people assume that regular discourse is haphazard. Furthermore, most ELT course materials do not break down speaking into micro-skills, which is bad. Instead, they frequently have the nebulous goal of "improving learner fluency" (Sayer, 2005: 14). 40 However, one of the most important aspects of comprehending the nature of speaking is to examine it in terms of competencies—underlying abilities—that constitute speaking ability. It is usually considered that such fundamental abilities have some type of structure, consisting of various components that interact and interact with one another. It is also assumed that different performances draw upon these underlying abilities in different but comprehensible ways (Bachman, 1990 and Widdowson, 1998). Of course, identifying these competencies will help in teaching them and hence determining how far they have been achieved. Some of the taxonomies used to classify speaking sub-skills eventually acquire a communicative perspective, presuming that speaking is primarily employed for communication. These are primarily generic models of language ability that are used to assess speaking and other abilities. There are, however, alternative taxonomies that are deemed speaking-specific and focus on distinct speech traits. These classifications are based on an examination of the competencies that underpin conversational skills. Both of the previous categories' models or taxonomies provide alternate frameworks for defining speaking abilities. To provide a more thorough view of speaking ability, one model can (Luoma, 2004: 60).

2 Communicative Tasks and teaching speaking

Because no genuine information is conveyed in most EFL sessions, teacher-pupil dialogues have limited communicative value. Typically, a teacher will pose a "display" question (one that the teacher already knows the solution to), an individual student will respond, and the teacher will evaluate or correct the response. Finally, this is an impractical use of language, and the amount of genuine conversation practice the student obtains is clearly limited by these queries (Dinapoli, 2000: 1).
Clearly, for actual communication to take place in the language classroom, teacher-student (and student-student) exchanges must go beyond display questions and be based on the gap that emerges between interlocutors when neither knows what the other is going to say ahead of time.
Thus, during the last decade, there has been a considerable shift away from highly structured, teacher-centered foreign language instruction toward task-oriented, communicative focused, and learner-centered instruction. The communicative approach to language learning (Thomson, 1992: 524) impacted this. As a result, the basic idea behind communicative activities is that the teacher does not decide which linguistic forms will be learn (Yule& Powers, 1994: 166 & Hedge, 2000). The basic premise is that tasks will activate realistic acquisition mechanisms and accelerate language development.

Theoretical rational for tasks.

For foreign language learners, the classroom may be the only available environment where they can try out what using the foreign language feels like, and how more or less comfortable they are with different aspects of FL pragmatics (Kasper, 2001: 520). Thus using tasks conforms to the most prominent hypotheses interpreting FL acquisition. 53 The use of tasks as vehicles for facilitating L2/FL development is supported by Swain's output hypothesis (1985). Swain argued that it is through the process of producing language (output) that learners may be able to test their theories about the target language, gain control over form, and perhaps internalize linguistic knowledge. Thus, output produced in tasks is not the result of the language learning process, but rather a step in the process (Adams, 2003: 248). Another prominent reason for using tasks in the FL classroom evolved from Long’s "interaction hypothesis" (1996). According to this hypothesis, learners, throughout interaction, often negotiate meaning to achieve mutual comprehension. The effort to achieve mutual comprehension involves the use of a variety of strategies, such as asking an interlocutor to confirm message content, or requesting that an interlocutor explain something further. This sort of interaction was assumed to foster L2/FL development. Similarly, from a communicative competence perspective, tasks were assumed to help learners engage properly with discourse by doing it (McCarthy & Carter, 2001"b": 59; Dinapoli, 2000: 1 and Ellis, 2003: 58). Vygotsky's socio cultural theory also is one of the foundations that support the use of communicative tasks. Three concepts are tightly related to task-based learning. These are interaction, activity and mediation (Myers, 2000: 11). According to this theory, tasks, rather than being externally defined, are in fact internally constructed through the moment to moment verbal interactions of learners during actual task performance. This was assumed to facilitate language acquisition

Definition of communicative tasks

Although tasks have many definitions ranging from formal grammatical exercises to complex classroom simulation, tasks here are to be dealt with in a communicative sense. Several definitions of tasks were provided by communicative approach theorists; most of them focus on the interactional and purpose- driven nature of 54 tasks and use these characteristics to distinguish between tasks and other activities. Nunan (1989: 10) and Nunan (2005: 5) define a task as a classroom activity which involves learner comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on "meaning" rather than "form". In addition, a task must be capable of giving learners "a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right". In this way, according to Lee (2000), tasks focus on meaning rather than a specific linguistic feature. Ellis (1994: 595), defines the task as some kind of activity designed to engage the learner in using the language communicatively or reflectively to arrive at an outcome other than that of learning a specified feature of the target language. Long & Crookes (1992: 55) and Skehan and Foster (1999: 94), agreed on their definition of tasks as they described them in terms of five characteristic, according to their perspective, a task is as an activity in which: i Meaning is primary i There is a goal which needs to be worked toward and the activity is outcome-evaluated i There is a real world relationship. i There is a problem orientation i Interaction is carried under time pressure A complementary approach to defining tasks is to show what tasks are not. In this respect, and according to Willis (1996, a) and (Willis, 1996, b), tasks do not give learners other people's meanings to express, they are not practice-oriented or concerned with language display and they do not embed language into materials so that specific structures can be focused upon. Similarly, Bruton (1999: 4) claims that tasks reject the itemized specification of synthetic syllabus, the assumed one by one focus with mastery in production as a requirement for progression. Furuta (2001: 15) stresses skills integration during communicative tasks. Thus, he defines a task as a posed problem or an activity that has a goal or 55 outcome that is not linguistic, but which is reached through a variety of linguistic skills. Brown (2001: 50) compares the task and technique. According to his point of view, in some cases the task and the technique might be synonymous. But in other cases, a task may be comprised of several techniques (for example, a problem solving task that includes grammatical explanation, teacher-initiated questions, and a specific turn-taking procedure). Tasks are always bigger in their ultimate ends than techniques. He provides some criteria for examining communicative tasks such as: achieving communicative goals, including problem solving elements and going beyond forms to real world context. So, it is apparent that in the core of each definition is an emphasis on the communication of meaning and on the importance of sharing information among students to achieve a certain goal. Hence, most of these definitions show how communication requires two or more participants, who express, interpret and negotiate meaning together. During performing tasks, students are free to use whatever language forms they want, without imposing any structures on them. Furthermore, most of the previous definitions focus on finding a relationship between the task and real world situations, hence fostering the learner’s ability to deal with these situations effectively in the future.

Task components

Nunan (1989: 48), Finch (1997), Brown (1998) and Nunan (2005) define task components as follows:


Goals Settings
Input Teacher role
Task