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10
TEXT-LEVEL ERRORS
1 After the test and the transcription of the taped material of the session, the students
were met individually and informally questioned as to how they perceived the
intentionality of the source text and the meanings of the various elements tackled.
2 Important cross-cultural communication studies include the work of Gumperz
(1977, 1982), Scollon and Scollon (1995).
3 For a detailed analysis of this and other examples from the perspective of power
and ideology, see Fairclough (1989, 1992, 1995).
4 In dealing with this sample, both the literary-critical and the text-linguistic angles
were provided by McHale (1992).
11
CURRICULUM DESIGN
1 It is perhaps worth nothing that the Formulaic Report, although highly constrained,
has been placed after the more evaluative varieties of the News Report. For reasons
of convenience, it was considered helpful to deal with the category Report
NOTES 207
separately from news reporting, and to consider it as consisting of the three basic
variants: the Formulaic, the Executive and the Personalized.
2 On the distinction between text and discourse, see Candlin’s preface to Coulthard
(1975).
12
ASSESSING PERFORMANCE
1 Reliability: ‘the extent to which an assessment would produce the same, or similar,
score on two occasions or if given by two assessors’. Validity: ‘the extent to which
an assessment measures what it purports to measure’ (Gipps 1994:vii).
2 ‘At universities which run courses for training professional translators, the only
method of monitoring learning progress appears at present to be the translation of a
text. The source-text material used for exams is selected almost exclusively
according to the degree of text-specific difficulty’ (Nord 1991:160–1).
3 See, e.g., Languages Lead Body, National Standards for Interpreting and
Translating, Crown copyright (forthcoming).
4 ‘In an objective test the correctness of the test taker’s response is determined
entirely by predetermined criteria so that no judgement is required on the part of
scorers. In a subjective test, on the other hand, the scorer must make a judgement
about the correctness of the response based on her subjective interpretation of the
scoring criteria’ (Bachman 1990:76).
5 Conversely, for a translation test to be valid, it must allow a reasonable consensus
among testers as to the text world it constructs or as to the range of possible
interpretations. Accepting that no two readings of a text are ever identical need not
entail a view that it is impossible to measure the accuracy of a translation.
6 Cf. Sager (1983:121): ‘There are no absolute standards of translation quality but only
more or less appropriate translations for the purpose for which they are intended.’
7 Cf. Hewson and Martin (1991), whose variational approach aims to encompass the
range of options available to the translator.
8 For example, Sager (1983) lists as uses: scanning and discard; reading for
information; detailed information and storage for future reference; draft for other
texts; publication, for prestige or for public record; legal validity.
9 Likewise, it would be pointless to evaluate a consecutive interpreter’s performance
by measuring it against a full translation, given the general expectation that the
consecutive interpreter should seek to be efficient, i.e. occupy less time than the ST.
10 Cf. Canale (1983), who distinguishes grammatical competence (including
knowledge of lexis), socio-linguistic competence (appropriateness to context),
discourse competence (combining forms and meanings into texts) and strategic
competence (compensating for breakdown and enhancing the effectiveness of
communication); cf. also Canale and Swain (1980), and R.Bell (1991) who adopts
this framework for describing translator communicative competence.
11 Cf. Nord (1991:162), who suggests that, in achievement testing, new or unfamiliar
translation problems which occur in an examination text should not be included in
the evaluation.
208 NOTES
References
Abu Libdeh, A. (1991) Metaphoric Expression in Literary Discourse with Special
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