NEGOTIATING TEXT IN CONTEXT
The discourse processing model outlined in this book rests on the basic
assumption that text users, producers and receivers alike, approach language in
use by reacting to and interacting with a number of contextual factors. The text
user attempts this task through a process of matching, seeking to establish links
between text and context at every stage of the way. Let us try to relate this
assumption to the analysis of a particular text sample (
10.1
). In the light of this
analysis, we shall then discuss text-level errors detected in translations of this
sample (
Figure 10.2
).
Sample 10.1
Letters
Checks and Balances
Sir—I note your criticisms of America’s constitutional form of government
(October 6th and 13th). Granted, our form of government may not be the most
efficient in getting things done. Granted, the budget crisis was a disgrace and an
embarrassment. But consider the alternative: I could be living in a country (1)
without a written constitution which (2) is a unitary state in which a monopoly of
state power is held by the national government…
What assumptions does an average, competent reader make in approaching a
text such as this? Having merely glanced at the first sentence, the text user would
most likely be thinking of correspondence with the press as the overall register
provenance and would expect the evaluation of the proposition relayed in the
initial sentence to be the overall pragmatic purpose. The reader would also have
certain assumptions: that various socio-textual conditions have to be met for the
letter to the editor to be appropriately handled as a genre; that commitment to a
point of view would be the overall discourse; and that argumentation would be
the predominant text type. This macro-analysis, however, is mere hunch, a set of
hypotheses to be confirmed or disproved as micro-processing proper gets
underway.
In dealing with the text at a micro-level of analysis, on the other hand, we may
assume that the proposition in the initial sentence of the letter will provide our
hypothetical reader with a basis on which to proceed in anticipating how the text
will develop:
I note your criticisms of America’s constitutional form of government.
In terms of English language and rhetoric, and journalistic conventions
regulating correspondence with the press, the initial proposition sparks off a set
of options in the reader’s mind. Pragmatically, it can (1) invite an immediate
rejection of what is implied (‘the criticisms are noted but…’) or (2) usher in an
account which supports the proposition implied (‘the criticisms are noted
and…’).
While it cannot be ruled out completely, the latter reading would be fairly
implausible. Had the intention of the writer been to relay approval, he would
probably have structured the text differently, perhaps opting for a different
TEXT-LEVEL ERRORS 137
wording from the start. There are also textual conventions surrounding the act of
writing to an authoritative and analytical national weekly. These militate against,
say, the uncritical acceptance of what are essentially controversial points of view
and instead generally encourage a more sceptical attitude, provocativeness and
independent thinking. The more likely reading of I note your criticisms must
therefore be something like ‘but I find them unconvincing if not utterly
groundless’.
With this still-hypothetical insight into the way the text might be developed,
the reader would probably process the first sentence as one which sets the tone of
the debate along these lines. Close reading for functional clues would confirm
the ‘rebuttal’ hypothesis (option (1) above) and, in turn, would set in motion
another system of options regarding what is to follow. The choices would be
considered on the basis of evidence so far accumulated. Within its own
intentionality (rejecting the proposition implied), intertextuality (the way
argumentation works in English) and register (contentious correspondence with
the press), the utterance in question could be followed either by (a) an immediate
rebuttal, or (b) a development of the stance put forward before a rebuttal is
issued.
There are two possible ways forward, then. The text producer could issue a
rebuttal straight away or, more likely, would want to make further concessions,
even if these were mere lipservice. The advantage of the first option is its
directness, the disadvantage is its relative inflexibility. The advantage of the
second option, on the other hand, is that it is credibility-enhancing, the
disadvantage is its short-term failure to get to the point. As it turns out, the text
producer opts for the second option but concurrently signals his real intentions
by the use of the item note, whose formality alone often and conventionally flags
a rebuttal in such contexts. The text producer makes an informal, temporary
concession, appearing to recognize what the other side might say:
Granted, our form of government may not be the most efficient in getting
things done.
The intentionality of this ‘thesis cited to be opposed’, the signals it relays by
occupying a preliminary position in the text and the register to which the text
belongs begin now to interact with another area of textuality, that of structure.
The overall structure of the text is determined by the context portrayed above,
and in turn begins to determine the way the text hangs together. A further system
of options is set up and the utterance which follows could, again, be either (a) a
further concession or (b) a rebuttal. The utterance which follows implements
option (a):
Granted, the budget crisis was a disgrace and an embarrassment.
138 THE TRANSLATOR AS COMMUNICATOR
With this, concession-making seems to have reached saturation point and the
text is now ready for the rebuttal proper:
But consider the alternative
Here, the text producer is finally revealing his own position, namely that of
arguing the point that the criticisms in question are not worth noting. But this is
undertaken only after the writer has first enhanced his credibility by fair-
mindedly reflecting the views of the opposition or at least appearing to do so.
It is perhaps worth remarking here that it is not only structure but also texture
that is implicated in this process of negotiating context. Consider, for instance,
the particular use of innocent-sounding lexico-grammatical features, and the
glosses we provide in brackets for what we take these to imply (in
Figure 10.1
).
In the course of the following discussion, we shall show how such curious ‘false
friends’, which are planted deliberately and subtly, can be very misleading in
translation. The underlying motive for this fairly ambiguous use of language, we
recall, is essentially to curtail the scope of emphasis generally relayed by the
concession and, more specifically, by the use of conventional concessives such
as ‘granted’, ‘of course’, etc. This so-called ‘straw-man gambit’ prepares the
ground for the forthcoming rebuttal by making sure that a non-committal attitude
is relayed.
To return to our sample, the text receiver is now better prepared for what to
expect: the contextual configuration is becoming more transparent and both
structure and texture more accessible. The text receiver must always be on the
lookout for any last-minute change of plan, motivated by, for example, the need
on the part of the text producer to be creative, interesting, etc. In the present
case, however, there is only one way the text can go now, namely to substantiate
the opposition and conclude the argument. A fully cohesive and coherent text
emerges, displaying a texture and a structure that fit within a recognized
contextual configuration.
1
note
(but I do not accept)
2
granted
(but this is not sufficient)
3
may not be the most
(but it can be more efficient than others or simply efficient)
4
in getting things done
(but it is efficient in many other ways)
5
crisis
(just one instance, not a pattern)
6
was
(it is all behind us)
Figure 10.1 Ways of saying and ways of meaning
TEXT-LEVEL ERRORS 139
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