participants, because they have known the facts directly.
Concerning the unconscious, what I am asking is whether it can
�e explained by a series of inner states of individuals who act in
common, or whether we must postulate the intervention of
something external and superior to the individuals.
DURKH�IM:
Once again, under the heading of the unconscious you
are reifying an entity. I can understand that you were posing the
Debate on Explanation in History and Sociology (1908)
227
question for all . th� phenomena of collective life: can they be
explained by individual causes or should we allow the existence of
specifically social causes? But why limit the question to uncon
scious phenomena?
SEIGNOBOS :
Because for us they are more mysterious and because
we are more inclined to concede to them causes independent of
individuals.
DURKHEIM:
But the fact that the events have been, or have not
been, conscious phenomena is of secondary importance for the .
historian who is really seeking to understand and reflect. You
belittle your role by hiding behind these witnesses or participants,
whom you call conscious ones. So long as no methodical research
has been undertaken, we do not know whether such and such a
phenomenon depends upon conscious and unconscious motives.
So there is no criterion fixed beforehand. Such a distinction is the .
fruit of historical research and not a guide to it. The unconscious is
often explained by the conscious, and vice versa. The unconscious
is often only a lesser state of consciousness. In short, there is no
particular problem posed in order to acquire knowledge of the
unconscious. Really you are· posing, in partial form, the great
problem of sociology, that ofthe collective consciousness, which is
too general to be tackled here.
SEIGNOBOS:
I posed that question because in history we often come
across inexplicable phenomena, which apparently seem to spring
from unconscious causes. It is because of this phenomenon that
the 'historical school' and Lamprecht have postulated the influ
ence of supra-individual realities, and I thought that it was by
obeying a sentiment of the same kind that contemporary sociolo
gists had been led to postulate a collective reality
sui generis.
DURKHEIM :
That is the mistake. I do not need to entertain
hypotheses concerning the reasons which may have motivated
Lamprecht. But those which have governed the contemporary
sociologists to whom Seignobos is referring are completely diffe
rent. And this leads me to contrast the two attitudes that you have
indicated - the Voltairean attitude which confines itself to stating
that there are things still unknown, and the mystical one which
attributes a real existence to the mystery of the past - to contrast
these two with a third attitude, which is the one we adopt. It
22:8 Writings of Durkheim on Sociology and its Method
consists in working methodically so as to arrive at understanding
scientifically the fact, without partiality and without any imposed
system.
SEIGNOBOS:
But that is exactly the Voltairean attitude, the one to
which I bow .
. LALANDE·:
All in all, there can be two ways of comprehending the
word 'understand', that of the historian and that of the sociologist.
For the historian, to understand is to represent things to oneself
from the viewpoint of the psychological motivation, the model is
within ourselves at the present time. For the sociologist, on the
other hand, to understand is to represent things to oneself from
the viewpoint of individual cases which can be reduced to a law or
at least to a general type which has already been laid down. These
are two problems with no connection with each other, whose
apparent contradiction derives only from the fact that they are
designated by the same word, unless they are joined with other
hypotheses.
DURKHEIM :
In short, we do not accept as such the causes that are
pointed out to us by the agents themselves. If they are true, they
can be discovered directly by studying the facts themselves; if they
are false, this inexact interpretation is itself a fact to be explained.
LALAND
E
:
It seems to me that Seignobos and Durkheim are in
agreement, in so far as they both admit that individuals can never
be considerep in isolation, before or outside society, and t
�
at they
cannot even be postulated without postulating society at the same
time.
DURKHEIM:
Let us .rest on that illusion, and let us · say that
Seignobos, like myself, admits that a society changes individuals.
SEIGNOBOS:
Agreed, but only on condition that the society is
conceived of solely as the totality of individuals.
DURKHEIM :
If you prefer it; let us say that the composing of the
assembled whole changes each one of the elements to be assem
bled together .
. SEIGNOBOS:
I admit that tautology.
Debate on Political Economy and Sociology
(1908)*
Limousin [states that] political economy occupies a special place
among the totality of the social sciences. It is the only one of these ,
sciences which is at present constituted as a systematic entity, the
sole one which has available
a
sufficient stock of observations to
allow the construction of laws. It is political economy which must
serve as a focus and to some extent as the mother of the other
sociological sciences. Even now some of its laws can be considered
as regulating types of relationships other than those of economiC
gain. For example, the division'of labour and the specialisation of
functions, are these not to be found in the science of marriage, the
science of the family, and even in the science of religions? What is
the distinction between priests and their flock save a form of the
division of labour and the specialisation of functions? The same
holds good for the other sociological scieIwes. Other economic
laws which are applicable are the law of supply and demand and
the law of capital.
The speaker says that he cannot end this brief exposition on
sociology without saying a few words about Auguste Comte, who
is held to be the founder of this science. But Auguste Comte did
not create it, for it still does not yet exist. At the risk of causing a
scandal, Limousin claims that Auguste Comte was not a scientist
in the sense of a man who knows about natural phenomena. He
who. deprecated metaphysics was solely a metaphysician, a meta
physician in the same category as the mystics, as he demonstrated
by the creation of a religion whose key dogma was the symbol of
the 'Virgin Mother'. Auguste Comte was not a sociologist,
•
Extract from
Bulletin de la societe d'economie politique,
4
April 1908,
pp.
64 - 73.
229
230
Writings of Durkheim on Sociology and its Method
although he was the inventor of this defectively formed word. He
was a socialist, for his 'sociocracy' is not an objectively constructed
system concerning the state of present or past societies, but a
Utopia in the style of those of Saint-Simon, Fourier, Pierre
Leroux, Cabet, Le Play, etc. The speaker does not dispute that he
[Comte] made some interesting remarks with the aim of buttres
sing his system. In particular, there is his basic theory, termed
positivism; but if he had had the honour of formulating it, it may
be said that it had been in the air since the end of the eighteenth
century, since the time of Lavoisier . If Auguste Comte had not
done so, someone else would have formulated it, because it was
imperative to do so. Other socialists of the same era have also
made discoveries: Fourier, Saint-Simon, Pierre Leroux, in particu
lar. What demonstrates that Auguste Comte did not possess a'
scientific mind is the singular judgement that he passes on political
economy. He had not understood it at all. As regards sociology, it
is all the more exact that he did not create it because the science
does not yet exist; we perceive it, butwe do not know it; we are
called upon to construct it.
.
The difficulty raised by the question posed, says Durkheim, is
that the facts with which political economy deals and those which
are the object of the other social sciences seem at first sight to be
very different in nature. Ethics and law, which are the subject
matter of determinate social sciences, are essentially questions of
opinion. Without' bothering about knowing whether a legal or
ethical system exists which is valid for all men, a metaphysical
question which has no place here, it is absolutely certain that, at
every moment of history, the sole moral and juridical precepts that
have been really brought into practice by men are those that the
public consciousness, namely public. opinion, has recognised as
such. Law and ethics only exist in the ideas of mank�nd: they are
ideals. As much may be said about the religious beliefs and
practices which are closely linked to them, and aesthetic pheno
mena, which in certain aspects are social ones, which can, and are
beginning to be studied in effect from the sociological viewpoint.
Thus all the sciences which correspond to these various orders of
facts - the comparative sciences of ethics, law, reiigion and the arts
- deal with ideas. On the contrary,' wealth, which is the object of
political economy, consists of things which are apparently essen
tially objective and seemingly independent of opinion. Then what
Depate
on
Political Economy and Sociology (1908)
231
connection can there be between two orders of facts so heter- '
ogeneous? The only conceivable one is that these external,
objective and almost physical realities studied by the economist
should be considered as the basis and the underpinning of all the
rest. Hence the theory of economic materialism which makes
economic life the substructure of all social life. Among the other
sociological disciplines, economic science may exert a veritable
hegemony.
The speaker nevertheless believes that economic facts can be
considered from a different viewpoint. To a degree that he does
not seek to determine, they too are a matter of opinion. The value
of things, in fact, depends not only upon their objective pro
perties, but also upon the opinion one forms of them. Doubtless
this opinion is partly determined by these objective properties, but
it is subject also to many other influences. Should religious opinion
proscribe a particular drink - wine, for example, - or a particular
kind of meat (pork), then wine and pork lose, wholly or in part,
their value in exchange. In the same way it is the fluctuations in
opinion and taste which give value to a particular material or a
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