participants? Why do they enjoy this singular privileged position?
SEIGNOBOS:
But that's very simple: because the participants and the
witnesses afford us an explanation of the conscious acts. Un
doubtedly they can be mistaken, and we must criticise their
explanations. But despite everything they had the means of
knowing something- one which we did not.
DURKHEIM:
If we have no other means of knowing, we must give up
history. If we look upon history as you do, those who do not .
engage in it can comfort themselves and even r�joice that they do
not do so.
SEIGNOBOS:
There is indeed no security or certainty in history if we
claim to fathom causes. This is proved by the fact that explanations
of phenomena are always different and never agree.
DURKHEIM:
Your method leads to the ultimate degree of nihilism.
So why then give such a large place to the teaching of history? It
would mean a lot of time wasted to achieve such singularly poor
results.
SEIGNOBOS:
Excuse me: the function of history is to remind those
who forget it of the interdependence and continual reaction
occurring between various successions .of facts which we tend
naturally to separate into watertight compartments. And, in this
way it can have a strong influence on the orientation of the mind.
It demonstrates that isolated or discrete phenomena cannot ever
exist.
Debate on Explanation in History and Sociology (1908)
2 1 5
DURKHEIM :
Yet all those who, engage in the study of the past know
full well that the immediately perceptible motives and apparent
causes are by far the least important. We must penetrate much
more deeply into reality in order to understand it. Or otherwise, if
there is no possibility of arriving at other causes, we must state
frankly that we cannot arrive at any real cause. It is true that you
distinguish between, and seem to oppose the
cause
and the.
law.
But what is a cause which is not a law? Every causal relationship is
a law.
SEIGNOBOS:
Not at all. There are events which have occurred only
once and yet whose cause can be determined.
DURKHEIM :
As soon as I have established a relationship between
two terms, A and B, I have a law. We do not define a law by the
generality of the cases in which it is manifest. In fact it is not
necessary for the relationship to recur more or less frequently; it is
sufficient for it to be of a kind capable of recurring. Logicians
recognise that a law can be established on the basis of one. well
conducted experiment. Once the law is established, the facts may
or may not recur, but that has no theoretical importance. Certain
phenomena, such as those relating to human biological monstrosi
ties, are instructive precisely because they are unique or excep
tional. So I do not see how a causal relationship cannot be
established which is not a law. If I know that A is the cause of B, I
know that A will always be the cause of B. The bond that joins
them is confirmed as a real one regardless of time and place.
SEIGNOBOS:
Yet there is nobody who doubts that Marat was
stabbed. A blow from a knife can bring about someone's death.
That is a cause, and I don't see any laws behind that happening.
DURKHEIM :
Everybody will say that Marat died from a knife
wound, unless the over-heated bath before the dagger-stabbing is
found to have effected his death. In any case, it is not because the
stabbing came before his death that it is seen as the cause of death.
It is by virtue of the general law that a stab by a knife determines
death if it reaches an essential organ. The stab is only a cause if it
has
produced
this result. If another cause had produced death, the
stabbing would not be held to be the cause. On this point the
scientist and popular opinion are absolutely in agreement.
But I go back to the techniques for searching out causes. Is there
2 1 6
Writings of Durkheim on Sociology and its Method
really no other method of discovering causes save by recourse to
the clues provided by witnesses or participants? Why when we are
faced with human and social phenomena should we be placed in
conditions more unfavourable that when faced with phenomena of
nature? Why should we not, there too, seek out the causes and the
l�ws from the outside? I exclude sociology, which is still too young
a science to serve as an example. But there is psychology which has
existed for a long time. In psychology one seeks to study the
unconscious, and is successful without in so doing building con
structs in the sky.
SEIGNOBOS:
The methods of observation are very much better.
DURKHEIM:
If in any field the introspective method ever seemed
indispensable, it is for the very study of the individual conscious
ness. For, by definition, here what is studied is internal phe
nomena. And yet, in spite of the .difficulties, the psychological
study of the unconscious and the objective study of the conscious
are possible and do come off. Why should either be impossible for
social and historical phenomena?
SEIGNOBOS :
Is it really possible to study the unconscious in
psychology? I am completely unaware that it is, and I think that no
certain conclusion on the matter has been reached. But in any case
the psychologist has at his command research proceQures which
are not available to us. Firstly, he is working on human subjects,
by which is meant complete facts and not fragments randomly
preserved. He can observe cataleptics - and particularly the
insane. The psychologist sees events unfold before him. In history,
on the contrary, the very elements are missing, and we have only
the reflection of events perceived and related by others. We are
obliged to work on second-hand materials, since by definition we
only know about things what others who have seen them tell us
about them.
DURKHEIM:
The work will be more difficult and complex, that's all;
the procedures remain the same.
SEIGNOBOS:
Not if the very elements are not available to us.
DURKHEIM:
Then we must give up trying to study history. If the
historical data are in any way accessible, they are comparable, and
the objective method must be applied. Otherwise, history no
longer exists.
Debate on Explanation in History and Sociology (1908)
2 1 7
SEIGNOBOS:
I beg your pardoQ: we have available some data which
are s'ufficient to allow us to establish relationships of cause and
effect, but which do not allow. us to determine and explain the
unconscious.
DURKHEIM:
But here we are not talking about the unconscious.
That's not the difficulty. What we are dealing with is knowledge of
causes, and I maintain that we cannot, in order to know the cause
of an event or an institution, limit ourselves in any way . to
questioning solely the actors in that event and to asking for their
view.
SEIGNOBOS :
That's an exaggeration. There are cases in which the
witnesses are not mistaken. Thus they saw clearly that William of
Orange left for England because he no longer feared the armies of
Louis XIV.
DURKHEIM:
I am not saying that these interpretations are bereft of
any interest. When a sick person believes he has a temp'erature, his
view, whether it is right or wrong, is an interesting fact that the
doctor must take into consideration. Likewise here. But your
example proves already that there is another method which is
possible. For how would you choose between those cases where
the witnesses are telling the truth and those . where they are
mistaken, if you have no other criterion than having recourse to
witnesses? The doctor consults the sick person, he must begin
there, b\lt the person's answer must only be one fact among other
facts, and all these facts require methodically to be elaborated,
without any one of them being able to provide us directly and
immediately with the real cause. Whatever ' the value of the
information contained in the documents, they must be criticised
and organised methodically and not merely recorded. But you see
how much the question you have put is an ambiguous one. For the
moment we are not discussing the conscious or the unconscious
but come back to the problem which occupied us last year: the
knowledge of causes in history. You have mixed up in that
question some reflections upon the unconscious which are com
pletely unrelated to it. It may be a truism, but that does not
concern the problem of the unconscious in any way.
SEIGNOBOS:
What I asked myself was precisely what is the irreduci
ble part of the unconscious in what is historically unknown.
�18
Writings of Durkheim on Sociology and its Method
DURKHEIM :
But the two questions arci completely unrelated. On
this point I will go even further than
y
ou. You seem to ident
ify
the
conscious and the known, as if what . is made 'clear by the .
cons�iousness of the individual participant were more readily
knowable than the rest. In rea
�
ity, what is conscious is also very
obscure. So I will say that the conscious and the unconscious are
equally obscure and that, in both cases, the question of the method
to be followed in order to arrive at a knowledge of causes is posed
in iden�ical terms.
SEIGNOBOS:
And yet there are conscious phenomena which are not
unknown. Take the case of languages.
.
DURKHEIM:
Clearly words are known, but what meaning is placed
behind. the words? There is nothing more difficult to discover.
What we must look for is a means of comparing historical data,
and establish series of phenomena which vary on parallel lines; it is
by these methodical comparisons that it is possible to discover
causes. And I think we can succeed in doing so. You are really
forgetting that over the last fifty years we have made a lot of
progress in comparative history: that is a whole positive achieve
ment that you seem totally to fail to recognise.
SEIGNOBOS :
But also systems fall apart every twenty years.
DURKHEIM :
If you want to show that science is always in a perpetual
state of evolution. I think that we are in agreement on that point.
Everybody admits that science progrel'ses slowly and never estao
lishes more than probabilities. But as soon as there are in history a .
certain number of positive data, as soon as you deem those data
sufficient to provide the threads of an historical account, why ·
should they be insufficient when one needs to institute a methodic
al comparison? Nowhere are ready-made causes to be found; it
musf always be the mind that uncovers them, and to do so one
must proceed methodically. Why, because historical documents
must be minutely criticised, because they are brief, ·incomplete,
fragmentary, should one conclude that a science of history is
impossible? ·But, if we look closely, the gap between the phe
nomena of life and what occurs in biology is no less great than the
gap between social life and what occurs in the practice of history.
This is the position in every science.
Debate on Explanation in History and Sociology (1908)
219
SEIGNOBOS:
On the contrary, wh;it is retained in the documents is
infinitesimal if we think about the host of past events. In biology
we are dealing with concrete entities; in hist,ory we have only
fragments of events.
DURKHEIM:
What is to prevent you from comparing the fragments?
You yourself acknowledge their solid links, since you group them
according to ages and build up from them a picture of the past .
. SEIGNOBOS:
We have the vague impression that several series of
phenomena change at the same time, but . . .
DURKHEIM:
When I find that, in a number of well observed and
well studieq cases, a particular kind of family organisation is linked
to a particular kind of social organisation, why should you prevent
my establishing a relationship between these two series of phe
nomena?
SEIGNOBOS:
Because we are almost never dealing with sufficiently
analogous phenomena to allow of a comparison .
. DURKHEIM :
But after all they are facts; I find them so, and you
know how often one finds striking similarities between institutions
of different peoples.
SEIGNOBOS :
Such peoples are always very profoundly different.
DURKHEIM:
But when, in studying marriage, I find, at very
different points on the globe, Identical formalities and ceremonies
comparable in every respect, when I find that men and women live
together in the same way, do you think that there is nothing
worthwhile to compare? What do you therefore conclude from all
that?
SEIGNOBOS:
Nothing. I do not know the cause of these similarities.
LACOMBE:
Seignobos seems to forget that the documents, consulted
in themselves and in isolation, would never succeed in authenticat
ing the facts. On the contrary, it is the generality and the
resemblances between the facts which authenticate the docu
ments. Without a comparison, there 'can be no certainty. Let us
suppose that you have one single document, apparently authentic,
but which tells of a fact of which there is no other example in
history. You will probably doubt the fact, and rightly so.
220 Writings of Durkheim on Sociology and its Method
SEIGNOBOS:
But comparison in history in the end is reduced to
analogy;
there are never complete similarities.
LACOMBE:
What does that matter? Without comparison, there is no
certainty. And on the other hand, it is comparison which forms the
.basis of our criticism and which makes it certain. When I am
confronted with certain motives that historians attribute to the
Ancients, I am inclined to be doubtful, because, in the men that
are described to me, I do not recognise the humanity that I know.
You see that comparison is always valuable.
SEIGNOBOS:
Quite so! It is in fact according to vague analogies with
the present that one judges and criticises most often past phe
nomena, because to find really exact analogies between two series
of the past and to compare them happens only rarely. For the
historian, to compare means above all to juxtapose what he finds
with the present time in which he is living.
LALANDE:
Up to this point we have only tackled the first question,
that of the knowledge of causes and the unknown in history. There
remains to be examined the second question, that of knowing
under what forms we must represent what, in historical calises,
escapes the consciousness of the individual. This is what Seignobos
was intending in the last part of his note when he asked: 'Must we
bring into play a cause
sui generis
. . . , the pressure exerted by the
body social in the form of tradition and collective organisation.
This would lead one to admit the existence of a species of
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