THE LEFT’S BLIND SPOT: MORAL CAPITAL
My own intellectual life narrative has had two turning points. In
chapter 5
I recounted the rst one, in India, in which my mind
opened to the existence of the broader moralities described by
Richard Shweder (i.e., the ethics of community and divinity). But
from that turning point in 1993 through the election of Barack
Obama in 2008, I was still a partisan liberal. I wanted my team (the
Democrats) to beat the other team (the Republicans). In fact, I rst
began to study politics precisely because I was so frustrated by John
Kerry’s ine ectual campaign for the presidency. I was convinced
that American liberals simply did not “get” the morals and motives
of their conservative countrymen, and I wanted to use my research
on moral psychology to help liberals win.
To learn about political psychology, I decided to teach a graduate
seminar on the topic in the spring of 2005. Knowing that I’d be
teaching this new class, I was on the lookout for good readings. So
when I was visiting friends in New York a month after the Kerry
defeat, I went to a used-book store to browse its political science
section. As I scanned the shelves, one book jumped out at me—a
thick brown book with one word on its spine: Conservatism. It was a
volume of readings edited by the historian Jerry Muller. I started
reading Muller’s introduction while standing in the aisle, but by the
third page I had to sit down on the oor. I didn’t realize it until
years later, but Muller’s essay was my second turning point.
Muller began by distinguishing conservatism from orthodoxy.
Orthodoxy is the view that there exists a “transcendent moral order,
to which we ought to try to conform the ways of society.”
34
Christians who look to the Bible as a guide for legislation, like
Muslims who want to live under sharia, are examples of orthodoxy.
They want their society to match an externally ordained moral
order, so they advocate change, sometimes radical change. This can
put them at odds with true conservatives, who see radical change as
dangerous.
Muller next distinguished conservatism from the counter-
Enlightenment. It is true that most resistance to the Enlightenment
can be said to have been conservative, by de nition (i.e., clerics and
aristocrats were trying to conserve the old order). But modern
conservatism, Muller asserts, nds its origins within the main
currents of Enlightenment thinking, when men such as David Hume
and Edmund Burke tried to develop a reasoned, pragmatic, and
essentially utilitarian critique of the Enlightenment project. Here’s
the line that quite literally oored me:
What makes social and political arguments conservative
as opposed to orthodox is that the critique of liberal or
progressive arguments takes place on the enlightened
grounds of the search for human happiness based on the
use of reason.
35
As a lifelong liberal, I had assumed that conservatism =
orthodoxy = religion = faith = rejection of science. It followed,
therefore, that as an atheist and a scientist, I was obligated to be a
liberal. But Muller asserted that modern conservatism is really about
creating the best possible society, the one that brings about the
greatest happiness given local circumstances. Could it be? Was there
a kind of conservatism that could compete against liberalism in the
court of social science? Might conservatives have a better formula
for how to create a healthy, happy society?
I kept reading. Muller went through a series of claims about
human nature and institutions, which he said are the core beliefs of
conservatism. Conservatives believe that people are inherently
imperfect and are prone to act badly when all constraints and
accountability are removed (yes, I thought; see Glaucon, Tetlock,
and Ariely in
chapter 4
). Our reasoning is awed and prone to
overcon dence, so it’s dangerous to construct theories based on
pure reason, unconstrained by intuition and historical experience
(yes; see Hume in
chapter 2
and Baron-Cohen on systemizing in
chapter 6
). Institutions emerge gradually as social facts, which we
then respect and even sacralize, but if we strip these institutions of
authority and treat them as arbitrary contrivances that exist only for
our bene t, we render them less e ective. We then expose ourselves
to increased anomie and social disorder (yes; see Durkheim in
chapters 8
and
11
).
Based on my own research, I had no choice but to agree with
these conservative claims. As I continued to read the writings of
conservative intellectuals, from Edmund Burke in the eighteenth
century through Friedrich Hayek and Thomas Sowell in the
twentieth, I began to see that they had attained a crucial insight into
the sociology of morality that I had never encountered before. They
understood the importance of what I’ll call moral capital. (Please
note that I am praising conservative intellectuals, not the
Republican Party.)
36
The term social capital swept through the social sciences in the
1990s, jumping into the broader public vocabulary after Robert
Putnam’s 2000 book Bowling Alone.
37
Capital, in economics, refers
to the resources that allow a person or rm to produce goods or
services. There’s nancial capital (money in the bank), physical
capital (such as a wrench or a factory), and human capital (such as
a well-trained sales force). When everything else is equal, a rm
with more of any kind of capital will outcompete a rm with less.
Social capital refers to a kind of capital that economists had
largely overlooked: the social ties among individuals and the norms
of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from those ties.
38
When
everything else is equal, a rm with more social capital will
outcompete its less cohesive and less internally trusting competitors
(which makes sense given that human beings were shaped by
multilevel selection to be contingent cooperators). In fact,
discussions of social capital sometimes use the example of ultra-
Orthodox Jewish diamond merchants, which I mentioned in the
previous chapter.
39
This tightly knit ethnic group has been able to
create the most e cient market because their transaction and
monitoring costs are so low—there’s less overhead on every deal.
And their costs are so low because they trust each other. If a rival
market were to open up across town composed of ethnically and
religiously diverse merchants, they’d have to spend a lot more
money on lawyers and security guards, given how easy it is to
commit fraud or theft when sending diamonds out for inspection by
other merchants. Like the nonreligious communes studied by
Richard Sosis, they’d have a much harder time getting individuals to
follow the moral norms of the community.
40
Everyone loves social capital. Whether you’re left, right, or center,
who could fail to see the value of being able to trust and rely upon
others? But now let’s broaden our focus beyond rms trying to
produce goods and let’s think about a school, a commune, a
corporation, or even a whole nation that wants to improve moral
behavior. Let’s set aside problems of moral diversity and just specify
the goal as increasing the “output” of prosocial behaviors and
decreasing the “output” of antisocial behaviors, however the group
de nes those terms. To achieve almost any moral vision, you’d
probably want high levels of social capital. (It’s hard to imagine
how anomie and distrust could be bene cial.) But will linking
people together into healthy, trusting relationships be enough to
improve the ethical pro le of the group?
If you believe that people are inherently good, and that they
ourish when constraints and divisions are removed, then yes, that
may be su cient. But conservatives generally take a very di erent
view of human nature. They believe that people need external
structures or constraints in order to behave well, cooperate, and
thrive. These external constraints include laws, institutions,
customs, traditions, nations, and religions. People who hold this
“constrained”
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view are therefore very concerned about the health
and integrity of these “outside-the-mind” coordination devices.
Without them, they believe, people will begin to cheat and behave
sel shly. Without them, social capital will rapidly decay.
If you are a member of a WEIRD society, your eyes tend to fall on
individual objects such as people, and you don’t automatically see
the relationships among them. Having a concept such as social
capital is helpful because it forces you to see the relationships
within which those people are embedded, and which make those
people more productive. I propose that we take this approach one
step further. To understand the miracle of moral communities that
grow beyond the bounds of kinship we must look not just at people,
and not just at the relationships among people, but at the complete
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