Scientific progress and man.
Science is often distinguished from other domains of human culture by its
progressive nature: in contrast to art, religion, philosophy, morality, and politics,
there exist clear standards or normative criteria for identifying improvements and
advances in science. For example, the historian of science George Sarton argued
that “the acquisition and systematization of positive knowledge are the only
human activities which are truly cumulative and progressive,” and “progress has
no definite and unquestionable meaning in other fields than the field of science”
(Sarton 1936). However, the traditional cumulative view of scientific knowledge
was effectively challenged by many philosophers of science in the 1960s and the
1970s, and thereby the notion of progress was also questioned in the field of
science. Debates on the normative concept of progress are at the same time
concerned with axiological questions about the aims and goals of science. The
task of philosophical analysis is to consider alternative answers to the question:
What is meant by progress in science? This conceptual question can then be
complemented by the methodological question: How can we recognize
progressive developments in science? Relative to a definition of progress and an
account of its best indicators, one may then study the factual question: To what
extent, and in which respects, is science progressive?
1. The Study of Scientific Change
The idea that science is a collective enterprise of researchers in successive
generations is characteristic of the Modern Age (Nisbet 1980). Classical
empiricists (Francis Bacon) and rationalists (René Descartes) of the seventeenth
century urged that the use of proper methods of inquiry guarantees the discovery
and justification of new truths.
This cumulative view of scientific progress was an important ingredient in the
optimism of the eighteenth century Enlightenment, and it was incorporated in the
1830s in Auguste Comte’s program of positivism: by accumulating empirically
certified truths science also promotes progress in society.
Other influential trends in the nineteenth century were the Romantic vision of
organic growth in culture, Hegel’s dynamic account of historical change, and the
theory of evolution. They all inspired epistemological views (e.g., among Marxists
and pragmatists) which regarded human knowledge as a process. Philosopher-
scientists with an interest in the history of science (William Whewell, Charles
Peirce, Ernst Mach, Pierre Duhem) gave interesting analyses of some aspects of
scientific change.
In the early twentieth century, analytic philosophers of science started to apply
modern logic to the study of science. Their main focus was the structure of
scientific theories and patterns of inference (Suppe 1977). This “synchronic”
investigation of the “finished products” of scientific activities was questioned by
philosophers who wished to pay serious attention to the “diachronic” study of
scientific change. Among these contributions one can mention N.R.
Hanson’s
Patterns of Discovery
(1958), Karl Popper’s
The Logic of Scientific
Discovery
(1959) and
Conjectures and Refutations
(1963), Thomas Kuhn’s
The
Structure of Scientific Revolutions
(1962), Paul Feyerabend’s incommensurability
thesis (Feyerabend 1962), Imre Lakatos’ methodology of scientific research
programmes (Lakatos and Musgrave 1970), and Larry Laudan’s
Progress and Its
Problems
(1977). Darwinist models of evolutionary epistemology were advocated
by Popper’s
Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach
(1972) and Stephen
Toulmin’s
Human Understanding
(1972). These works challenged the received
view about the development of scientific knowledge and rationality.
Popper’s falsificationism, Kuhn’s account of scientific revolutions, and
Feyerabend’s thesis of meaning variance shared the view that science does not
grow simply by accumulating new established truths upon old ones.
Except perhaps during periods of Kuhnian normal science, theory change is not
cumulative or continuous: the earlier results of science will be rejected, replaced,
and reinterpreted by new theories and conceptual frameworks. Popper and Kuhn
differed, however, in their definitions of progress: the former appealed to the idea
that successive theories may approach towards the truth, while the latter
characterized progress in terms of the problem-solving capacity of theories.
Environmental Ecology
Environmental Ecology is the branch of biology which studies the
interactions among organisms and their environment. Objects of study
include interactions of organisms with each other and with abiotic
components of their environment. Let’s find out more
about Environmental Ecology.
Introduction to Environmental Ecology
Ecology is known to be the scientific study of the interactions among
the organisms and their environment. It is the study of distributions,
abundance, and relations of organisms as well as the interactions with
the environment. It includes the study of plants and animals
populations, plants, and animals community as well as the
ecosystems
.
Ecology is a broad term which is also known as bio
ecology
, bionomics
or environmental biology as it specifically studies the relationship
between the organisms and the
environment
.
It is an interdisciplinary field that deals with both subjects
of
biology
and earth science, however, is separate from the study of the
environment, natural history and environmental science. It is
environmental science that focused on the interactions between the
physical, biological and chemical environment components that include
their effects on different types of
organisms
.
Environmental Science is a broader field as it incorporates elements of
earth and life science. Whereas Ecology is primarily focused on how the
organisms interact with each other and as well with their surroundings.
The people who study ecology are called ecologists.
They focus on the specifications or interactions with the group that
includes the preference of the food, eating habits, and migration.
Ecologists study issues of the
population
size, diversity, distribution,
and dominance of specific organisms. Some of the key issues studies by
ecologists are –
Levels of Organisation and Study
When describing the ecological phenomena, the scale and dynamics
of
time
and
space
shall be considered carefully. It takes about 1000 of
years for the ecological process to mature when considered in reference
to time. For example – The lifespan of a tree. The global patterns of the
biological diversity are complex.
Ecology and Ecosystems
An ecology is a scientific approach to the study of the biosphere,
whereas ecosystems are created by the interrelationships between the
living organisms and the physical environments they inhabit ( which
can be land, air or water. ) These systems require a source of energy (
for example – light from the sun ) to help them able to work.
It is essential to identify the components involved along with the
interrelationships to study the ecosystems. To map the
interrelationship between the organisms within an
ecosystem,
food
chains and food webs play an essential part.
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