The Ministry of Higher and secondary education of the Republic of Uzbekistan The Uzbekistan state World Languages University

How can grammar be taught effectively?
Teaching, its methods and forms got through many innovative changes during a period of several years.
In the 1990s, O’Malley and Chamot (1990) claimed that “most of the time teachers are more attentive to the product of the learners than the process of learning” (p. 156). In spite of the time difference, this is still relevant in Albanian classes of EFL today; hence, this paper will focus on ways of allowing a EFL teacher to design plans for grammar lessons that intertwine theoretic approaches in the category of grammar learning strategies (GLS) and which allocate classroom time for their practice.
Grammar Learning Strategies
Following previous approaches of different language learning strategies (LLS), Cohen and Pinilla-Herrera (2011) introduced a new point of view with how the term “strategy” should be used. According to these authors, the frequently encountered term, “strategy”, referred to more than just “study skills” and “repetition techniques”. In fact, it referred to “quite sophisticated cognitive skills such as inference and deducing grammar in a generative way” (Cohen & Pinilla-Herrera, 2011, p. 14). This approach implied that LLSs should not only be considered by teachers as means to provide learners a way to promote their study skills, as “the popularity of the LLS research was the potential it held for affecting learning, both in and outside of the classroom” (Cohen & Pinilla-Herrera, 2011, p. 14). This enquiry drew the attention of researchers towards cognitive LLS use. In our context of research of GLS, it is implied that teachers should not present grammar learning strategies in the classroom to facilitate their pupils’ accurate reproduction of foreign language patterns. Instead of conceptualizing grammar acquisition as a set of rules that need to be learnt and accurately followed, teachers need to encourage natural acquisition of grammar as much as possible. In this case, memorization of rules would be substituted by automatic generation of grammar structures and, in such a case, GLSs would serve as compensatory tools to help learners fill voids in their structural use of foreign language patterns. Earlier than 2005, Anderson (cited in Pawlak, 2009, p. 44) acknowledged that research in GLS up to 2009 had lacked approaches targeting the identification of learning strategies that second language learners used “to learn grammar and to understand its elements”. However, unawareness of the availability of such tools as GLSs, on the behalf of the learners, did not prevent learners manipulating their approach towards the new grammar concept, by defining the knowledge they were expected to remember and to cognitively use it. Therefore, GLSs developed into tools that helped the learner draw a planned learning pathway towards reaching their learning outcomes. The teacher’s duty, at this stage, would be to facilitate the process by providing a range of strategies from which the learner could select those that fit, not only his or her learning context, but also their approach for acquiring language patterns. Teachers could manage the class not only from a teaching perspective, but also from a learner’s perspective. Thus, it is not simply grammar teaching methods that need attention. The teacher should help the learner understand grammar rules as well as the structure of grammar patterns. Only in this way can individual learners actively approach the task and be selective in the use of strategies that work best for them. Considering the view of Oxford (2014, p. 124), that the learner is a “whole person” that manipulates various resources during the acquisition process, it is somewhat understandable why grammar teaching classes should move from a teaching idea “one size fits all” to a more personal approach. This requires teachers to allow time for the individual to learn and encourage them to use GLS, depending on the particular role and nature of requirements. Following the categorization of O’Malley and C hamot (1990), learning strategies may be metacognitive, cognitive, or social affective, which refer respectively to learners’ planning, controlling, and evaluation of their learning by monitoring their own comprehension or linguistic production, and evaluating the outcomes of their own learning. In addition, the strategies relate to the learner’s thinking about the learning process by transforming the material to be learned through resourcing, repetition, grouping, deduction, imagery, auditory representation, keyword association, elaboration, transfer, inference, notetaking, summarizing, recombination, and translation; and finally, to the learner’s involvement in communication. From this perspective, the rest of this paper will focus on the allocation provided in an EFL course book for introducing metacognitive, cognitive, and social affective learning strategies in the lesson plan or in the grammar class activities (which in the framework of independent learning, involves out of class or homework activities). This research follows a survey carried out as part of a graduation thesis of a “teacher-to-be” student of EFL at “Fan S. Noli” University of Korçë, Albania. The research was tutored by an author of this article and was aimed at assessing the extent in which GLS were used in two schools of the city where English was taught as a foreign language. Although the study context was limited due to the small number of teachers and pupils interviewed, it revealed a shallow understanding of the term “learning strategies” among the interviewees. On one hand, teachers took great care of the grammar teaching methods, but on the other hand, very few were able to define the meaning of the given GLS in the questionnaire.
HOW CAN GRAMMAR BE TAUGHT EFFECTIVELY?
From Year 3 onwards (and Year 2 GDS) children who are working at the expected standard, are expected to ‘write effectively and coherently for different purposes, drawing on their reading to inform the vocabulary and grammar of their writing’. As they move through KS2 they are expected to ‘select appropriate grammar and vocabulary, understanding how such choices can change and enhance meaning.’ To support children to learn how to do this, we must support them in understanding what effective writing is. At One Education we use the acronym R.A.F.T to support teachers and children with their understanding of this.
When planning a unit of work for a specific text-type we as teachers must very clear on the R.A.F.T of writing, who the writing is for, why we are writing, what tone it should be written in and what grammatical features should be and should not be included. With this in mind, we can then select the appropriate grammar to teach. We have hopefully moved away from the culture of ‘tick lists’ where children attempted to ‘shoe-horn’ all types of grammar into a piece of writing, where writing ‘ticked all the boxes’ but did not necessarily flow. Now what we are seeing more and more is pupils being supported to make choices and select appropriate grammar for specific writing. This way writing feels less forced and is more coherent.
Professor Myhill (2014) explains that ‘ the key to effective use of grammar is to open children’s eyes to the infinite repertoire of choices which are available to them as writers. Used in this way, grammar helps children understand how language works and how to express themselves with greater craft and creativity’
Grammar should be taught within English lessons and support the children’s learning of a specific text-type. The evidence is clear – the isolated teaching of grammar has very little, if any, impact on children’s writing content and ability.
The Exeter research (Lines et al, 2014) provides a number of practical approaches for teaching grammar effectively:
1. Use authentic examples from authentic texts
Teaching children to write effectively, we must ‘hold their writer’s hand’; expose them to high-quality texts with rich language, grammatical rules and sentence structures in order for them to apply these independently in different contexts. We need to plan in rich reading experiences linked to specific language goals. Exposing our pupils to high-quality reading will increase their vocabulary and provide opportunities for discussion around authorial choices. However, we do not want our children writing to a formula, simply copying the models they have read. We must explicitly share good examples of grammar and model how to make similar choices using strategies such as ‘thinking aloud’ to share the process we take as writers.
2. Use grammatical terms but explain them through examples
It is true that children must be able to identify grammatical features such as ‘nouns’, ‘verbs’ and ‘simple sentences’, however, functional grammar goes further than just looking at a word within a sentence. They must also understand why, where and in what order these are used to be able to apply them within their own oracy and writing.
For example, a child may be able to identify a noun and verb in a sentence, but do they understand the importance of a verb within a sentence? Do they understand the order of a noun and a verb in EYFS and KS1? Do they understand how selecting different verbs will impact the meaning and possibly the intent of the sentence?
Using a text that they are familiar with, or a current text within English lessons would be the best way to introduce a term. For example, Zog by Julia Donaldson is helpful for introducing simple sentences, verbs and alliteration. There can be lots of discussion about the vocabulary, its meaning, importance and position.
3. Encourage language play, experimentation and risk taking
For children to have the confidence to ‘play’ with language, they must be exposed to a wide bank of vocabulary to choose from. We need to build up their knowledge of vocabulary and develop a ‘word consciousness’ where they are excited and curious about language.
When introducing a new grammatical term, providing opportunities for children to investigate and explore words and punctuation together can be powerful. Exploring ideas, patterns and discovering rules together can be a much more effective way of learning. This way they are able to make links to wider knowledge and experiences to their learning
For example, here, when introducing verbs, children could be given a selection of words colour coded and could attempt to work out the different word classes justifying their thoughts. This can only be possible if they are familiar with the vocabulary.
In order for children to experiment with language and take risks in their writing, they need to know that it is safe to do so. Building a culture of drafting and proofreading within your lessons is vital here as children need to know that their writing can evolve and change if they want it to. There needs to be a culture of discussion about language, looking at language on scales and knowing that choices need to be made to create the correct intent.
Techniques of teaching grammar
Learning grammar (and teaching it) consists of two main stages: learning the leaning and form of each new structure, and putting it into practice. In ETpedia Grammar, a variety of techniques are used for both stages. Here are 10 of the most common and useful ones which feature in the book.

1. 
   Boardwork presentations.
   

For a quick and easy presentation of new language, the board is the obvious resource to exploit. Start by building a context. For example, a traveller’s suitcase covered in stickers of places she’s been provides an easy-to-establish context for the present perfect for experiences. Make sure you include on your board: the affirmative, eg a sticker saying ‘Mexico’ elicits She’s been to Mexico; the negative, eg She hasn’t been to China; and question forms and short answers, eg Has she been to Malaysia? Yes, she has / No she hasn’t. Underline or use a different colour to highlight the structure, ie has been, contractions I’ve / she’s / etc., and aspects of pronunciation, eg been = /bɪn/. See Unit 18.1 and Unit 29.7 for examples of boardwork presentations of the present continuous and present perfect continuous.
2. Using the students and you, the teacher
A direct context for language can often be found in the lives and experiences of the people in the room. Personal contexts immediately show how applicable the grammar is, and can also be more memorable than stories of people from outside the students’ worlds. Throughout the book we suggest activities where students talk about themselves, their experiences, their lives, their opinions. We also suggest ways that you can use stories from your own life to present grammar, for example in Unit 24.1 we suggest that the teacher use photos of themselves when they were younger to introduce was/were. Student photos can also be a great resource. Most students will have photos on their mobile phones that they can share with each other to support any number of practice activities.
3. Using realia
Bringing objects into the classroom or using the objects you find in the classroom can help bring a grammar point to life and create a physical memory hook. Realia can be used to create a context for the target language. In Unit 7.1, for example, we suggest using such things as a bag of rice, a glass of water, a balloon and a tea bag to introduce the concept of countable and uncountable nouns. It can also provide further practice. In Unit 4.6, for example, objects that the students have brought to class provide a talking point to present and practise possessive structures.
4. Dialogue building
This collaborative technique involves setting a scene and, with the students’ help, writing a dialogue on the board including the language you want to focus on. In Unit 10.6, the teacher provides a framework for a dialogue between waiters and customers in a restaurant. This is a familiar situation in which the indefinite pronouns something, anything and nothing occur naturally. Students then either practise the dialogue in pairs as it is or with variations (eg different choices of food and drink, a different type of restaurant). A great way to push students towards memorising the language is to gradually erase the text, word by word, until the students are repeating the dialogue from memory.
5. Dictation
With grammar points where the written form is already familiar to the students, but where meaning needs to be explored in more depth, a quick and effective means of introducing the language is to dictate model sentences to the class. Dictation immediately gets students working with the language and tests listening skills and spelling, as well as grammatical knowledge. It also promotes conversation management skills, such as asking to clarify and repeat: Sorry, could you say that again, please? In Unit 9.4 the teacher dictates sentences containing verbs used with and without reflexive pronouns to start exploring the differences in meaning and use. Unit 33.3 involves another basic dictation to teach the meaning of reporting verbs.
6. Dictogloss
In a dictogloss, the teacher has a text prepared to dictate to the class, but instead of dictating it slowly to ensure students write a faithful copy, they read it at a more natural speed two or more times. Prepare a text of no more than 100 words (fewer for lower-level students). Read it out first for content, and check comprehension. Then tell students to write down keywords, such as nouns and verbs, as you read it out again. Explain that even though they will not be able to write every word, they should keep writing as much as possible. Using their notes, students in pairs or small groups reconstruct the text in complete sentences. The idea is not to reproduce the text verbatim, but to focus in on certain aspects of the language used. For example, Unit 30.6 is a dictogloss activity focusing on the use of would to talk about past habits. Others can be found in Units 14.3, 34.2 and 42.7.
7. Drilling
To help students pronounce new language correctly, get them to say it repeatedly so you can check for accuracy. By experiencing the movement of the mouth as they say it, students reinforce their learning in a different way from when they write it down and see it. Simple drilling can be either choral, ie all students repeat the structure at the same time, or individual. A suggested order is to let students practise chorally first, but to insist on individual repetition so that you can check everyone is pronouncing it correctly. There are ways to vary drilling so that it doesn’t get repetitive. Substitution drilling involves the teacher prompting students to substitute words for other words in a drilled sentence, for example:
T: He’s been working at the office. S1: He’s been working at the office.
T: they S2: They’ve been working at the office.
T: at home S3: They’ve been working at home.
T: watch TV S4: They’ve been watching TV at home.
See a simple substitution being used in Unit 9.1. Drilling can be disguised as a game, as in the circular drill in Unit 48.2, where students inadvertently ‘drill’ each other. And although the board game in Unit 43.4 is not recognisably drilling, students need to repeat the second conditional over and over in order to win the game.
8. Songs
Another popular way of encouraging students to repeat structures as well as to make them memorable is through songs, eg If I had a million dollars by the Barenaked Ladies (see Unit 43.6). Choose songs that contain the target language multiple times and which contain a natural stress pattern for it, too, eg If I had a million dollars, I’d buy you a fur coat. Songs can be used to present the target language through listening tasks such as gap-fills or reordering the lines or words in the lyrics. They also offer repeated exposure to the language and, if your students enjoy singing, can also offer a chance to practise pronunciation.
9. Exploiting feedback stages
Feedback on activities is not just about seeing how many questions students got right; it is an opportunity to achieve several teaching objectives: to check understanding, correct persistent errors, share interesting information, revise rules and to draw conclusions. Other ways of exploiting this crucial stage at the end of activities include:
• reformulation: in Unit 25.2, students use questions to find out when their partners last did certain things, eg, When did you last go to the cinema? However, during feedback they must use affirmative sentences: Lorena last went to the cinema on Friday night.
• critical thinking: as well as asking students what they answered, we can also ask Why? In Unit 40.3, they are asked why they voted for their favourite slogans, for example.
• remembering/summarising: one way of carrying out feedback is to get students to work in pairs or groups to remember everybody else’s answers, effectively drilling the target language.
10. Error correction
Students want and expect correction from their teacher. Choosing which mistakes to correct, when to do so and how, are complex questions. It’s important, however, to remember that students who need the most correction may not be those that make the most or biggest mistakes. Lower-level or quiet, shy students may benefit from less correction so that they are not discouraged from using English, however imperfectly. We correct students in the hope that they won’t keep making those mistakes. To encourage them to think about their errors, let them try out new language, listening out for errors of use. Then point out the errors and show them the corrections. Finally, let them do the activity again, this time with those common errors fresh in their minds. In a shopping roleplay in Unit 5.3, for example, students can perform the roleplay first, you correct any errors, then they swap roles and try again.
Grammar Learning Strategy Integration in the Lesson Plan
The learning context in which this paper focuses is that of second and third year EFL students that receive professional language training and qualification at the “Faik Konica” High School, in Korçë, Albania. In this school, English is taught in four classes each week, in groups that range from 13 to 16 pupils. The course books are “Traveller” Pre-Intermediate; Student’s Book, Work book, Teacher
Resource Book by Mitchell (2009), and “Traveller” Intermediate; Student’s Book, Work book, and Teacher Resource Book by Mitchell (2009). Both A2-pre-intermediate and B1-intermediate course books are arranged in eight modules and 16 classes per module, and each is subdivided into sections of vocabulary, grammar, intonation, reading, listening, speaking, writing, and functions. The grammar sections of both levels introduce various topics, such as the use of simple and progressive tenses, infinitive and “-ing”, modals, active and passive, quantifiers, relative pronouns and adverbs, conditionals, question tags, degrees of adjectives, nouns, articles, determiners, clauses of reason, concession, and purpose. The textbook material is envisaged to encourage learner-centered classes due to important elements, as described below:
1. Each module started with “In this module you will…”. The learning outcomes of the first A2 module, were “In this module you will learn to talk about the present and past, learn to talk about past habits, learn to use quantifiers”, while those of the first B1 module were “In this module you learn how to refer to past habits and events”. A careful teacher would not neglect this rubric and would be effective in engaging the pupils in the following module activities, making the learner focus directly on the learning outcomes. Attention drawing tools of this kind help the learner extract relevant knowledge, activities, and therefore, strategies that assist his or her acquisition. At the same time, this sets the ground for effective metacognitive GLSs introduction, usage, or transfer, such as:
2. Setting goals – Designing learning plans helps to achieve learning outcomes;
3. Advance Organization – Previewing the main ideas and concepts of the material to be taught.
The teacher can encourage its use by drawing the learner’s attention to the section “In this unit you will learn…” or by handling pre-grammar activities, such as “Look at the article below and answer the following questions… (all of the questions focusing on the use of present simple interrogative form)”;
4. Selective attention – Attending to phrases, linguistic markers, sentences, or types of information. The learner has to be aware that the individual’s acquisition depends on individual issues of concern. The more the individual learner is aware of the expected acquisition goals, the easier it will be for him or her to reach these goals.
5. At the end of each module, there was a Self-Assessment rubric, in which the learner is asked to tick the boxes for learning outcomes that they deem they possess; for those in which they are unsure, they are required to refer back to the relevant selection in the module. In the A2 first module, this rubric started with “Now I can… Talk about the present and the past… Talk about past habits and use quantifiers”. The same rubric of the B1 first module is divided into six sections (according to the six language skills) with the grammar sections focusing on, “Now I can…use the present Simple and the Present Progressive appropriately, differentiate between stative and non-stative verbs, use question words and form direct and indirect questions, use the Past Simple appropriately and use used to, be used to and get used to refer to habits”. These sections encouraged the learner to assess the level of his or her acquisition, to compare it with that expected, and define their ability in acquiring the grammar points. They also assessed the effectiveness of the selected GLS. In their daily activities, teachers “sacrifice” these end-of-unit activities in order to compensate for “loss” of time. However, their presence is to be considered a means that allows learners to assess their own use of the GLS and judge their worth in either transferring or later improving their use in similar activities. The two metacognitive strategies that could be introduced at this point are “Self-evaluation” and “Self-monitoring”. 6. Some modules of the course book had “tips”, which introduce written advice on how the learner can acquire the given knowledge of the introduced skill. For example: “Pay attention to how people speak. Their tone of voice can often help you understand how the feel”; “When you read a text, try to understand which of the unknown words are really important for understanding the text. Try to guess the meaning of as many of these words as possible from the context”; “Learn new words in the context (in sentences describing situations). This way, it is easier to remember them.”; and “When answering questions that refer to gist, don’t focus on details. Try to understand the general meaning of what is being said”. The tips vary and are frequently encountered through the course book (24 pages altogether); there were also seven listening tips, three vocabulary tips, 2 reading tips, and 1 speaking tip. Even though the primary function of these notes is to substitute or compensate for teaching advice, most are considered a learning strategy (since their aim is to facilitate the learning process). The lack of grammar tips allows for possible intervention, as described in the following issue.
7. The inductive approach was used throughout the module grammar issues of the book and all grammar sections followed the same acquisition pattern; the learners are required to “read the example/ the dialogue and to match them with the phrases that define the grammar rule or with the uses, to complete the rules or to decide what it means, etc.”. In the charts that introduce the grammar points, no grammar theory is presented or reflected in the examples. However, grammar knowledge is presented at the “Grammar Reference” section at the end of the course book. This allows the teacher to postpone talking about grammar theory and structural patterns until the examples or the practical exercises (in which they are reflected) are analyzed by the learner. The learner then has more opportunity to observe grammar in practice, undertake an effort to understand how it works, build comparisons to the mother tongue, and then, where necessary, seek an understanding of the theoretic issues that govern the linguistic functions. In this respect, it becomes possible for him or her to acquire a practical approach to grammar, and the native-like acquisition aspect, which is very important, but tiresome to introduce in a foreign language school learning context. When the learner is deductively explained the rules and then presented examples in which these are reflected, the acquisition is not active; it becomes a process where the learner stores a duplicated version of a ready-made linguistic patterns. Pawlak (2008) defined it as “explicit-deductive L2 learning”, in which the learner pays attention to “the rules provided by the teacher or the book” (p. 112). The success of the acquisition is measured by means of full compliance of that acquired earlier with that learnt later; this being what teachers normally assess through practical exercises that follow or through unit and progress tests. However, the teaching experience frequently shows that those that compile the proficiency tests may not necessarily be proficient language users. Most strategies (Table 1) are part of the O’Malley and Chamot (1990) classification charts, some have been provided by Oxford (1990), and some by Pawlak (2008) regarding the use of diaries to record GLSs from “Advanced Learner’s use of strategies for learning grammar: A Diary Study”. These GSLs were mentioned in the survey described above. The reference term for most was not recognized by the teachers nor by the learners, and hence, Table 1 includes supplements to their definition.