The Interplay of Synonymy and Polysemy

trajector
, while the secondary participant is a 
landmark 
(2008:113). In 
a sentence such as 
He ate the pizza
, the 
he 
is the trajector and 
the pizza 
is the landmark. The 
verb itself “evokes” these participants. In other words, the verb in its schema makes reference 

---

21 | 
to other schemas. These are called 
elaborations sites
, or 
e-sites
. Verbs are dependent on 
other schemas in order to complete their meaning (2008:199). 
In much the same way as Goldberg (1995), Langacker’s (2008) linguistic system 
contains symbolic structures which are interconnected. Langacker, though, only posits two 
types of relationships. If an expression fully conforms to a schema’s specifications, if it is an 
instance or instantiation of that schema, then the relationship is one of 
elaboration
. If there 
is some conflict in specification, but there is still an association of similarity, then it is an 
extension
(2008:170). These two types of relationships serve to connect and categorize 
schemas and specific usages.
Constructions are connected within the system. Langacker makes a point of arguing 
that this set of interconnected constructions should be understood using a mountain range 
metaphor. The different schemas are not discrete entities and there need not be a sharp 
distinction from one to another. One should imagine that schemas capture the peaks of a 
mountain range. They represent the most salient elements. Still there is a gradient from one to 
the other. Additionally the total number of peaks or schemas depends on the level of 
inspection chosen (2008:227). 
Polysemy can be captured using schemas and relations of extensions and elaboration. 
A simplified example of the noun 
ring 
is shown in figure 1 (2008:37). The central or 
prototypical sense is marked by bolded lines. 
Circular mark
and 
circular arena
are 
understood as extensions in meaning from 
circular object
; they are extensions since they do 
not conform completely to the central sense. This relationship is captured by dashed lines. 
Langacker also often posits more abstract schemas, to capture information shared by all 
elaborations. All three lower schemas are instantiations (solid lines) of the abstract schema; 
they conform to its specifications.