Chapter 1
The History of Libraries and Literacy in the
United States
The history of library service to individuals with intellectual disability (ID) is
minimal prior to the twenty-
fi
rst century. Yet, to explore potential services it is
necessary to examine this history, especially the development of literacy pro-
gramming which makes the closest approach to serving patrons with ID. As
Wayne Wiegand writes more generally,
“
That is unfortunate, because without a
deeper understanding of the American library
’
s past we cannot adequately assess
its present and are thus unable to plan its future prudently
”
(Wiegand, 1999, p. 2).
While some themes in librarianship go back to antiquity, it is convenient to begin
our review at the start of the American Republic which, as we will see, provides a
continuous and vital context for the library profession in the United States.
The Junto and the Origins of the American Library
An argument can be made for an
“
Ur-library,
”
the founding library from which
the entire profession sprang, in Benjamin Franklin
’
s Library Company of Phil-
adelphia. Founded by one of the architects of the American Revolution, it
remains in existence today (Kaser, 1980, p. 13). The circumstances of its founding
are relevant. To facilitate the wide-ranging exploration of ideas, which, no doubt,
contributed to a new country, Franklin organized a group of like-minded indi-
viduals into a discussion group which he called the Junto (Shera, 1965, p. 31). The
Junto featured regular discussions of philosophical questions, and to enhance the
conversation, they sought for books. Franklin proposed that the members
consolidate all of their books together into one location for the convenience of
everyone; however, the owners of the scarce commodities did not like to be
deprived of them. In response, Franklin, in 1776, formed the Library Company of
Philadelphia, the
fi
rst subscription library. Franklin describes his rationale and
the outcome of his idea.
“
These libraries have improved the general conversation
of the Americans, made the common tradesmen and farmers as intelligent as most
gentlemen from other countries, and perhaps have contributed in some degree to
the stand so generally made throughout the colonies in defense of their privileges
”
(Franklin, 1997, p. 1372). So successful was this idea that it remains in operation
as a living artifact of the Revolutionary Republic.
Libraries and Reading, 7
–
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What stands out in this story is the clever business model that addresses a
public need. For certain, economics has always been a foundation for library
services that determines its limits. Less obvious but more central to our discussion
is a conceptual tension in the vision of this original library which we will follow as
a driving force for the profession, especially as it concerns diversity and indi-
viduals with ID. This tension is latent in the concept of
“
service
”
which contained
two opposite meanings. One sense, associated with
“
order,
” “
discipline,
” “
stan-
dards,
”
and other such meanings, focused on self-improvement. The Library
Company, as part of the milieu of the early Republic, helped develop the indi-
vidual to make him (admission of women was a later development) more
knowledgeable, which in turn could make him wealthier, more ethical in the mold
of the
“
Christian gentleman,
”
and a more effective citizen. The second sense of
“
service
”
was the opposed concept of
“
accommodation
”
for pleasure. As
Franklin
’
s ebullient tone signi
fi
es in his description of his library, its users derived
great enjoyment from the books apart from bene
fi
ts they received, and Franklin
takes evident satisfaction in sharing his own pleasure in books with a wider
audience. In sum, one sense of service took an authoritative position by subjecting
the individual to order and control, as in the term
“
military service.
”
(While this
may seem foreign to their mission, librarians need only recall the imperial façade
of older library buildings and the ongoing phenomenon of library anxiety to
recover this authoritarian dimension.) The other sense of
“
service
”
provided the
individual with recreation and enjoyment. Two opposed concepts of master and
servant were encompassed in the original concept of the library. The seam
between them was not evident in the original Library Company because they were
melded together, as they were in the Junto that inspired it. This brilliant company
of young men rejoiced in study and improvement as they contemplated a new
nation in which they could exert their will. However, this uni
fi
ed concept of
service was not to last.
Types of Libraries
Starting from the colonial period and running into the early years of the
Republic until the Civil War, three distinct types of libraries emerged, the social,
the subscription, and the circulating libraries.
1
While these have been widely
recognized and subject to extensive commentary, they have not been examined
through the creative tension in
“
service
”
that can unify them together. These
types of libraries will be traced up to their eventual absorption into public
libraries in the post-Civil War era. The development of academic libraries
1
Jesse Shera
’
s authoritative history of public libraries recognizes only two types, the social
and the circulating. Indeed, these correspond to the only two types of business models. The
social library required annual dues from its members, who then had access to the entire
collection. Circulating libraries required fees for the borrowing of individual titles.
Nevertheless, we offer a
fi
ner subdivision of three categories to re
fl
ect the social
functions of libraries and the spectrum between the extremes self-improvement and
recreation that they represented.
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follows a somewhat different path. It will be discussed as a derivation of public
libraries with some unique antecedents.
The social library, as the name implies, emphasized the social aspects of the
original Junto. It was a gentlemen
’
s club of the social elite. Overtly, these libraries
aimed to share the expensive and uncommon books that were the province of the
wealthy. These books featured in glittering social gatherings that marked the
prosperous, and the notion of
“
service
”
as pleasure and recreation was prominent.
Yet, the other sense of service was present too. Conscious of themselves as the
premier members, not only of society, but of a new kind of country, the library
patrons sought to gain new knowledge and develop Christian principles to
enhance their leadership. James Raven observes these trends in his meticulous
case study of a colonial library in South Carolina whose members included the
governor. Raven identi
fi
es another purpose related to self-improvement: Mem-
bership, itself, de
fi
ned individuals as a social elite.
“
The development of these
libraries underscores the importance of a literary and scienti
fi
c sociability in which
books, prints, and scienti
fi
c instruments acted as a catalyst for social and political
exchange and advancement
”
(Raven, 2007, p. 34). Shera enlarges on the
formative forces of the social library:
An interesting, but little investigated, development in the new
culture was the rise of the tavern as a rendezvous for public
discussion and the emergence of the intellectual importance of
the social club, both directly imported from England, where they
had gained even greater prominence. In the urban centers men
were uniting in a variety of voluntary associations for all manner
of purposes: to discuss the progress of science, to argue theology or
politics, to write essays, to publish pamphlets or periodicals, even
to
fi
ght
fi
res or merely, as [Benjamin] Franklin said, to gain
“
rest
from their wives. (Shera, 1965, p. 49)
Thus, individuals not only made up a community of readers but were rede
fi
ned by
this community in turn. The library was not just a means but an end in itself for
establishing respectability.
Another example of the social library was the Athenaeum of Portsmouth, New
Hampshire. This was a prominent example of another movement for education
and self-improvement in the early Republic (Shera, 1965, pp. 227
–
228; Story,
1975, p. 179). Inspired by classical models, like much of the new country, the
Athenaeums sought to provide reading materials and a space for the enlightened
and democratic debate that was imagined in ancient Greece. As part of their
program, the Athenaeums and related Lyceums sponsored lectures which featured
some of the brightest lights of American literature of the time, including Ralph
Waldo Emerson with his philosophy of Transcendentalism. Unfortunately, the
Athenaeum also partook of some of the less savory characteristics of its classical
model. In particular, the democracy of the Greeks differed from the modern sense
of the word with its privileges reserved for elite, landowning members of society.
Similarly, the Portsmouth Athenaeum served as a bastion of the social elite.
The History of Libraries and Literacy in the United States
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This feature emerges in Baenen
’
s analysis of the extensive backlash against the
Athenaeum that coincided with the rise of public libraries at mid-century. Rather
than serving as a model for expansion, the Athenaeum was a negative example,
targeted by newspaper editorials, demonstrations, and even vandalism as a
bulwark of privilege and a sti
fl
ing in
fl
uence on society. The nature of these
objections demonstrates how the Athenaeum
’
s vision of service as ordered,
controlled improvement had drifted away from a social service to become
regarded as an enemy to the public.
“
The paradox, of course, was that the social
library could become its own closed society
”
(Baenen, 2007, p. 90). As demon-
strated by the Athenaeum and the colonial society of South Carolina, social
libraries emphasized the cultivation, achievement, and order of its members who
saw their enrollment as a badge of superiority. This feature was pressed far enough
in some cases to become opposed to the general improvement of the rest of society.
The second type of library in the
fi
rst half of the nineteenth century was
subscription libraries that strictly followed the model of Franklin
’
s original
library. Interested people with means would pay to gain access to the library
’
s
collection of books. Following Franklin
’
s original vision, the library aimed at
both self-improvement and recreation, and a selection committee chose books of
general interest. At this point, an issue rose that would perturb libraries in
America up to the present day with increasing in
fl
uence
–
the role of novels and
fi
ction designed for entertainment.
The general prosperity of the new country and improvements in book pro-
duction combined to enable the cheaper publication of books in larger quantities
(Augst, 2007b, p. 2). The subject of these books was pitched to satisfy a new
consumer demand for enjoyment that emanated from a new population of
increasingly literate women. Restricted from the increasingly competitive, male-
dominated world of business, women were consigned to the domestic space as a
moral symbol, the Angel in the House (Hartigan-O
’
Connor & Masterson, 2018;
Roberts, 2002; Sicherman, 2006, p. 8). Yet, this new con
fi
nement created a leisure
time that demanded to be
fi
lled. It was with the reading of romance novels, which
were supplied by a growing number of women authors.
“
As private and com-
mercial circulating libraries sold their services to women, for example, they came to
be identi
fi
ed as female institutions that
–
by focusing on the provision of popular
novels in particular
–
undermined the traditional moral and intellectual functions
of reading itself
”
(Augst, 2007b, p. 9; Lerner, 1998, p. 146; Long, 1969, p. 44;
Shera, 1965, pp. 90
–
91). This outpouring of literature, judged to be low in quality
but great in quantity, rami
fi
ed up to the highest levels of literary society. Nathaniel
Hawthorne, a celebrated canonical author, grumbled in his later years about how
he and his peers were being crowded out of the commercial market.
“
America is
now wholly given over to a damned mob of scribbling women, and I should have
no chance of success while the public taste is occupied with their trash-and should
be ashamed of my-self if I did succeed
”
Mott as cited in (Augst, 2007b, p. 9;
Frederick, 1975, p. 231; Shera, 1965, p. 91). While the changing social position of
women had a large in
fl
uence on the surge in
fi
ction, this trend was not limited by
gender. Other categories such as self-improvement Horatio Alger novels and
“
penny dreadful
”
action novels appealed to the increasingly literate readership.
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The question for libraries was how to deal with this new trend. The sub-
scription libraries held the line on their mission of self-improvement, and the new
fi
ction was restricted to a small consignment which was intended to guide readers
to more worthy subjects such as philosophy. However, the new material inspired
a different type of library called the circulation library. They resembled sub-
scription libraries enough to cause some confusion in de
fi
ning them. Like the
older model, they charged fees for access to a book collection that was loaned or
circulated for a period of time. But unlike older libraries, the new breed catered
unabashedly to entertainment with no pretensions to self-improvement (Augst,
2007b, p. 7; Kaser, 1980, pp. 90, 118). These libraries sought expressly to take
advantage of the new supply of recreational reading and the newly prosperous
and literate consumers who wished to enjoy them.
“
Whereas the social libraries in
general represented the more sophisticated book requirements of the community
and their collections were formed by men with real enthusiasm for good litera-
ture, the coexistent circulating libraries re
fl
ected much more popular reading
tastes, and their shelves were
fi
lled with
fi
ction
–
those
‘
greasy combustible
duodecimos
’
denounced by the moralists
”
(Shera, 1965, p. 127). Buoyed by the
prosperity of the expanding new nation, circulating libraries
fl
ourished and
became a signi
fi
cant presence. However, their very strength proved to be their
weakness. Capitalizing on favorable economic conditions, they proved unable to
sustain themselves amid the instability of the new economy which rose and fell as
the country expanded and new economic and social systems emerged (Ditzion,
1947, p. 49; Green, 2007, p. 70). Subscription libraries, which had bonds of
identity and purpose beyond the merely commercial, were able to weather the
economic
fl
uctuations and survive.
The three types of libraries
–
social, subscription, and circulating
–
represent a
great deal of history that we can only skim over. They are important for us as an
illuminating fragmentation of Franklin
’
s original subscription library, which
formulated a fundamental tension between recreation and systematic self-
improvement, a purpose rooted deeply in the culture of the aspiring new
nation. The subsequent division into different types of libraries illustrates the
dynamic work of this tension over time. As an approximation, social libraries
represented an extreme of self-improvement and achievement that de
fi
ned social
elites. Circulating libraries catered to the least cultivated who sought only
entertainment while subscription libraries maintained Franklin
’
s original vision of
balance between these extremes. Yet, these trends also show hidden nuances in the
two meanings of service. The social libraries pursued self-improvement to the
point of elitism and exclusion. They were confronted on this point by the forces of
the circulating library as being undemocratic, the reverse of the original, stated
purpose of the social libraries. And while the social libraries in response might
have considered the circulating libraries the province of the rabble and the
“
great
unwashed,
”
the new institutions represented a higher level of literacy and pros-
perity that, while not equal to the social libraries, was more broadly diffused and
represented a net advance for society. The history of the three types of libraries is
an early tale of diversity as the elements of the new society sought to de
fi
ne and
position themselves in a developing framework.
The History of Libraries and Literacy in the United States
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These libraries can be understood more deeply and further linked with their
culture through a unique feature of the new nation that was most articulately
described by one of its most famous observers, Alexis de Tocqueville. A visitor
from France in the early nineteenth century, Tocqueville combined an outsider
’
s
perspective with intelligent, close observation to produce an assessment of
America that remains current. He writes:
Americans of all ages, all stations in life, and all types of
disposition are forever forming associations. There are not only
commercial and industrial associations in which all take part, but
others of a thousand different types
–
religious, moral, serious,
futile, very general and very limited, immensely large and very
minute
…
. In every case, at the head of any new undertaking,
where in France you would
fi
nd the government or in England
some territorial magnate in the United States you are sure to
fi
nd
an association. (de Tocqueville, 1945, p. 523)
Indeed the associational impulse remains alive and well in American culture,
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