The first english language faculty the department of english phonetics and phonology

CHAPTER II The characteristic features of English prepositions of time so place
2.1. The syntactic features of English prepositions

Here we must distinguish between the two levels of language: that of phrase so sentences so its parts. As far as phrases are connected the function of prepositions is to connect words with each other. On this level there are patterns like:

Noun +preposition + noun; adjective + preposition+ noun; verb + preposition + noun; which may be exemplified by numerous phrase such as: a letter from my friend, a novel by Sillitoe, fond of children. ²⁴
On the sentence level: a preposition is never a part of a sentence by itself, it enters the part of sentence whose main centre is the following noun, pronoun or gerund. We ought to say that prepositions connect parts of a sentence. They do not do that, as they stso within a part of the sentence, not between two parts. The connections between the prepositions, the word which precedes it, so the word which follows it requires special study. Different cases have to be distinguished here. It was already reminded the cases when it is the preceding word which determines it. In these cases where the use of a prepositions is not predicted by the preceding word the connection between them looser, so the connection between the preposition of the following word may prove to be stronger of the two. This difference more or less corresponds to that between object so adverbial modifiers expressed by prepositional phrases. Thus, in a sentence like: This depend on him; the preposition is predicted by the verb so the phrase on him is an object where as in a sentence like the book is lying under the table; the preposition isn’t predicted by the verb so the phrase is an adverbial modifier. However, this criterion does not hold good in all cases.
Sometimes the boundary line between a preposition so another parts of speech is not quite clear. Thus, with reference to the words like so near there may be doubtful cases from this view point. For instance, the recreantly in the adjective near, used in such phrases as the near future. On the other hso, there is the preposition near, found in such sentences as they live near me.
The adjective has degrees of comparison so the preposition has none. In this connection, the following sentence will examine which presents us with a whole bundle of problems involving both that of parts of speech so that of subordinate clauses:
When they had finished their dinner, Bone drew back the curtains so opened wide window nearest where they sat. (A. Sillitoe’s “Key to the door”)
The question about a word nearest is closely connected with that about the ties between the where clause so the main clause. As the word nearest, there are obviously two ways of interpreting it; it is either an adjective in the superlative degree, or a preposition. Each of the two interpretations has its difficulties. If we take nearest as an adjective in the superlative degree, it will follow that his adjective can take an object clause, in the same way as it takes an object within a clause this would mean that the subordinate clause where they sat is treated very much like a noun. If, on the other hso, we take nearest as a preposition, we should have to state that there is a special preposition nearest in modern English. ²⁵
It would not obviously not do to say that the preposition near has degrees of comparison. There would appear to be no valid reason to prefer the one or other of the two views, so a third possibility seems to present itself; saying that we have here a borderline case of transition between an adjective in the superlative degree so a preposition. ²⁶
This is one more example of language phenomena requiring a careful so wholly undogmatic approach it would be futile to except that every single language fact would fit easily into one pigeon hole or another prepared for it in advance. Language phenomena have as it were no obligation to fit into any such pigeon hole so it is the scholar’s task to approach them with an open mind, to take into account their peculiarities so to adjust his system as best he can to receive such unorthodox facts. Another example of this kind has been considered above: it concerned the status of the words many, much, few, so little. ²⁷
PREPOSITIONS
Unlike other parts of speech prepositions cannot be distinguished by any formal
features. A list of prepositions will illustrate this point:across, after, at, before, by, during, from, in, into, of, on, to, under, with, without
We can, say, however, that prepositions typically come before a noun so they
express a relation between the two entities:
across town, after lunch, at noon, by Shakespeare, during lunch, under the table
Between the preposition so the noun, determiners so adjectives can intervene:
after the storm
on white horses
under the old regime
Whether or not there are any intervening determiners or adjectives, prepositions
are almost always followed by a noun. In fact, this is so typical of prepositions that if they are not followed by a noun, we call them "strsoed" prepositions:
Preposition Strsoed Preposition
John talked about the new film this is the film John talked about Prepositions are invariable in their form, that is, they do not take any inflections. The prepositions, which we have looked at so far, have all consisted of a single word, such as in, of, at, so to. We refer to these as SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS.
COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS consist of two- or three-word combinations acting
as a single unit. Here are some examples:
according to
along with
apart from
because of
contrary to
due to
except for
instead of
prior to
regardless of 36
Like simple prepositions, these two-word combinations come before a noun:
according to Shakespeare contrary to my advice due to illness Three-word combinations often have the following pattern:
Simple Preposition + Noun + Simple Preposition
We can see this pattern in the following examples:
in aid of
on behalf of
in front of
in accordance with
in line with
in line with
in relation to
with reference to
with respect to
by means of
Again, these combinations come before a noun:on behalf of the Departmentin line with inflationThere are some circumstances in which the preposition is not followed by a noun, either because the complement has to take first position in the clause, or because it is absent:
 Wh-questions: Which house is he staying at?
At which house is he staying? (formal)
 Relative clauses: The old house which I was telling you about is empty.
 Wh-clauses: What I am convinced of is that the world´s population will
grow to an unforeseen extent.
 Exclamations: What a mess he´s got into!
 Passives: She was sought after by all the leading impresarios of the day.
 Infinitive clauses. He´s impossible to work with.
A prejudice against such postponed prepositions remains in formal English,
which offers (for relative clauses so for direct or indirect questions) the
alternative of an initial preposition:
It was a situation from which no escape was possible.37
This construction is often felt, however, to be stilted so awkward in informal
English, especially in spoken form. Prepositional Meanings:
Prepositions are probably one of the trickiest so more difficult areas of English
grammar because the may indicate different meanings. They are best learned along with their accompanying nouns or verbs, i.e. as part of a phrase rather than being on their own. ²⁸
In the following charts, prepositions are introduced within a sentence. Pay attention to the type of verb that goes with each preposition because they play an important role in indicating the intended meaning. It really takes time so practice to acquire the whole range of prepositions so their possible meanings, but, please, don’t give up. Try hard so you will succeed.²⁹
I.5.2.1 Place:
 Prepositions meaning place indicate position or direction as you can see in the following examples: Direction Position
Tom went to the door Tom was at the door
Tom fell on (to) the floor Tom was on the floor
Tom dived in (to) the water Tom was in the water
Tom went away (from)the door Tom was away from the door
To jumped off the roof Tom was off the door
Tom went out of the house Tom was out of the house Some of the prepositions above can be replaced by other prepositions with the same meaning: upon is a formal equivalent of on; inside so within can substitute for in, so outside for out of.The following diagrams explain the notions of direction so position: Direction Position to at (away) from away from.³⁰
on (to) on off off
in (to) in out of out of

Apart this simple position, prepositions may express the relative position of two objects or groups of objects:By; over; with; under; above; on top of; underneath; beneath; below; before; in front of; behind; after; beside; near (to); between; among He was stsoing by his brother (‘at the side’ of).

I left the keys with my wallet (‘in the same place as’)
The prepositions above so below, so in front of so behind are not only antonyms but converse opposites:
The picture is above the mantelpiece= the mantelpiece is below the Picture. The bus is in front of the car= Te car is behind the bus. Over so under as place prepositions are roughly synonymous with ³¹
Above so below respectively. The main differences are that over so
Under tend to indicate a direct vertical relationship so/or spatial
Proximity, while above so below may indicate simply ‘on a higher level
Than’
The castle stsos on a hill above (rather than over)the valley.
The police officer was leaning over (rather than above) the dead body.
´
Underneath so beneath are less common substitutes for under; beneath With verbs of motion, prepositions may express the idea of passage (movement towards so the away from a place) as well as destination.³²
He jumped over the bridge. Someone ran behind the goal posts. The sense of passage is the primary locative meaning attached to: across; through so by.
The ball rolled across the lawn.
I walked through that field.39
Come in by the side door. The others are locked.
 Other prepositions: up; down; along; across; (a) round, etc. with verbs of motion, make up a group of prepositions expressing movement with reference to an axis or directional path:
Just go straight up/down/along this road so you´ll find the bank. With (a) round, the directional path is an angle or a curve:
We ran (a) round the corner.
Exercises on page Time: Time-when: These prepositions are to some extent parallel to the same items as prepositions of position: at, on; in
At is used for points of time, chiefly clock-time: at 10 o’clock; at noon, at night; at
That time, etc. idiomatically, for holiday periods: at Easter; at Christmas On is used with phrases referring to days: on Monday; on May 24th
In (during) is used to indicate periods: in the evening, during
Holy Week; in August.
Time-duration: for; from…to; over; (all)through; throughout have a
Durational meaning parallel to their pervasive meaning in reference to place: We camped here for the summer.
We camped here through the summer
We camped here from June to August.
(See Appendix 1 for a contrasting analysis of at/in/on as prepositions of place so time) Time-exclusively: before; after; since; until/till occur almost exclusively as prepositions of time: I need to see you before next class. We slept until midnight. Other prepositions of time are between, up to so by: By the time he got home, he was exhausted. I will phone you between lunch so two o’clock.³³
Up to last week, I had not received a reply.
Exercises on page 183
Other Meanings:
Cause-Purpose
Because of, since, on account of, etc. express either the material cause or the psychological cause of a happening:Because of the storm all the flights are delayed.
I hide the money for fear of what my parents would say.For is used to express a purpose or intended destination:
He died for his country.
He ran for shelter.
Recipient, goal or target:
For; to so at express intended goal or target:He made a doll house for his daughter.He gave a doll house to his daughter.The hunter aimed carefully at the deer.
Source, origin:
From is used to express source or place of origin
I borrowed the book from Bill.
He comes from Austria.41
Means so instrument:
By expresses the meaning ‘by means of’:
I usually go to work by bus.
With, on the other hso, expresses instrumental meaning:
He caught the ball with his left hso.
 Without expresses the negative meaning of with:
I drew the line without a ruler.
Stimulus:
The relation between an emotion so its stimulus can often be expressed by at or by the instrumental by :I was alarmed at/by his behavior.
Accompaniment:
Especially when followed by an animate complement, with has the
Meaning ‘in company with’ or ‘together with’:
I am so glad you are coming with us.
Rice with curry is my favorite dish.
Support so opposition:
For so with convey the idea of support whereas against conveys the contrary idea of opposition:
Are you for or against the plan?
Reference: With regard to; with reference to; as for, in regard to; with respect to; in
respect of express the idea of reference: As for the burglar, he escaped through the attic window. Exception: Except; excepting so but All the students except/but Bob passed the test. Negative Condition: It is important to notice that but for is not used in the sense of exception as listed above, but rather that of ‘negative condition’: But for John, we should have lost the match.(If it hadn’t been for John).Ingredient, Material: With verbs of ‘making’ with, of so out of indicate the material or constituency of the whole thing: You make a cake with eggs. He made the frame (out) of wood. Respect; Stsoard:³⁴
For so at may specify the meaning of a gradable adjective:
For an Englishman, he speaks Spanish remarkably well.
He is terrible at games.
Reaction: We can express reaction by using the preposition to follow by an abstract noun of emotion: To my annoyance, they rejected the offer.to can be also used to identify the person reacting: It looked to me a vast chasm. Remember: each preposition may express different meanings; therefore, it is inconvenient to try to learn them by memorizing preposition lists. Gradually by using them so/or by analyzing the context in which they appear your will improve your commso.

In some phrases which are not part of a sentence, a preposition does not connect two words because there is no word at all before it, so so its ties are on sided: they point only forwards not back.

In, On, so At: Prepositions of Time so Place
A preposition is “a word governing, so usually preceding, a noun or pronoun so expressing a
relation to another word or element in the clause.” (from The Oxford English Dictionary)
The definition from Oxford is perhaps a more complicated way of saying that a preposition is a
word showing the relationship between a noun so another noun, a verb, or an adjective.
Why Are Prepositions Tricky?
If you are frustrated with prepositions, you are not alone. Many consider prepositions the hardest tool of grammar to master because they are so numerous so do not always have specific rules that cover their usage.For instance, you just have to remember that we think about, talk about, dream about, but never share about. There are, however, a few often-used prepositions like in, on, so at—the prepositions of time so place—whose usage follows a rule that is easy to remember.Prepositions of Time so Place: the Smaller to Bigger Rule.³⁵
When using the prepositions in, on, so at for time so place, you will find that as you go from more specific (smaller) to more general (bigger), at gradually turns into on, which gradually turns into in.
Consider the following examples.
Place
When you want to reveal your location at a precise area, you use the preposition at.
Examples: I live at 1234 Sesame Street #2.
I am eating at Subway.
When you want to reveal your location on a street or boulevard, use on.
Examples: I live on Sesame Street.
Subway is on Orange Boulevard.
When you want to reveal your location in a city, state, country, or beyond, use in.
Examples: I live in San Jose.
San Jose is in California.
California is in the United States.
The syntactical functions of the prepositions in cases of this type is a recular one. The preposition either a relation between the thing expressed by noun so something not mentioned in the text as in A. Sillitoe’s “Key to the door”, or it gives the characteristic of the place where something not specified takes place “under the greenwood tree”.
It is the evident that in such cases the preposition has only a one sided connection, namely with noun following it, but we may ask whether has not also some reference to something not expressed which may be imagined as stsoing before the preposition. In this way the meaning so function of the preposition become clear: the preposition of is used as it is used in the phrases: speak of something, think of somebody;
We should especially note some peculiar uses of the preposition about, namely in such sentences as: there were about twenty people in the room, which means that the number is given approximately. The preposition here has only one sided connection, namely with numerals, so has also no connection at all with preceding verb. Preposition can sometimes be followed by adverbs which apparently become partly substantivized when so used. The groups from here, from where since then are too widely known to require illustrative examples.³⁶
There is the possibility of interesting between a preposition so a words or phrase it introduces, another phrase which can its turn, be introduced by a preposition.
The way of making one preposition come immediately after another, showing the independence of the first preposition, is also seen in some cases where the status of the second preposition may be doubted that is it may be doubted whether the word is really a preposition in that context. Not all this is made by the fact that preposition in English require the word they introduce to have a specified case form. Sometimes even a parenthetical clause cone between the preposition so the noun in introduces.³⁷
A closer tie between the preposition so preceding word can offset the looseness of the tie between the preposition so the following noun. This may be seen for instance in some passive construction with the phrase verb+noun+preposition acting as a kind of transitive unit. It should also be noted that a preposition does not necessarily connect the word, which immediately precedes it with the one that follows.