longitudinal data sets for the period 1991–2002, found
health to be the key determinant of whether someone
would retire in Germany and the United Kingdom
(69)
.
Using the same British data, Disney et al. found robust
evidence that health deteriorations increased the
probability that older people would transition from
economic activity to inactivity
(70)
. They also found that
the impact of deterioration and improvement in health
was asymmetrical, with a deterioration in health having
a larger negative effect than the positive effect
associated with a health improvement of similar
magnitude. Siddiqui used longitudinal data from West
Germany to show that being disabled or suffering from
a chronic disease significantly increased the probability
of early retirement
(71)
. Using Spanish survey data from
1999, Jiménez-Martin, Labeaga & Vilaplana Prieto found
that (self-reported) ill health and disability shocks
significantly affected the probability that older workers
would continue working
(72)
. Using a Danish
Longitudinal Register database for 1991–2001 and
medical data from the Danish National Patient Registry,
Datta Gupta & Larsen found that men aged 50–69 were
8% more likely to retire two years after suffering an
acute health shock (heart attack, stroke or incident
cancer)
(73)
.
The relationship between health and retirement has
been the subject of less research in central and eastern
European countries, though some recent work has been
undertaken for the Russian Federation
(3)
; for Albania,
Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bulgaria
(74)
; and for
Estonia
(18)
. These studies confirm that the impact of ill
health on retirement is not restricted to western Europe.
Ill health emerged as an important factor in anticipating
the decision to retire in all these countries. In Estonia, for
instance, ill health increased the probability that a man
would retire in the following year by 6.4% compared to
one without a chronic illness or disability. For women
the corresponding figure was 5.6%.
The study on the three south-eastern European
countries found a particularly strong effect in Albania,
although precise cross-country comparisons cannot be
made because of differences in the data. In the Russian
Federation, we examined how chronic illness affected
the probability of retiring in the subsequent year. An
individual who suffers from chronic illness has a
significantly higher probability of retiring in the
subsequent year than the same individual free of chronic
illness (Fig. 2). The magnitude of effect is sizeable
compared to other variables in the model. Interestingly,
as the figure shows, the impact of health on retirement
is particularly strong among the poor, suggesting that
existing economic disadvantage may be perpetuated
through ill health.
In summary, increasing research from Europe indicates
that poor health and, in particular, sudden deteriorations
in health, lead to earlier retirement.
3.2 Macroeconomic costs
The previous sections showed how better health is good
for the economic status of individuals. Is the same true
for entire countries? This section reviews what is known,
with a particular focus on research of greatest relevance
to the countries of the European Region. It does not
look in detail at the ways by which scourges such as
HIV/AIDS and malaria may impede economic growth in
many countries. Specific work is available on malaria
(75)
, HIV/AIDS
(76)
and malnutrition
(77)
.
The evidence on whether better health contributes to
economic growth in countries in the WHO European
Economic costs of ill health
11
21
23
32
43
29
40
56
62
18
18
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
> 95
th
income
percentile
75
th
–95
th
income
percentile
50
th
–75
th
income
percentile
25
th
–50
th
income
percentile
< 25
th
income
percentile
Not chronically ill
Chronically ill
Richest
Poorest
Probability %
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