Social welfare costs
From a welfare economic perspective, the most relevant
cost concept is the value individuals attribute to better
health. For standard goods and services there exists an
attributed measure of value in the market price, but not
for health. Thus, despite risking controversy and
acknowledging the methodological difficulties, one
must elicit the value people attribute to health. This can
be done by analysing either how people act or how they
answer certain questions related to real or hypothetical
situations involving a trade-off between money and
health. It turns out that the social welfare benefit of
health is clearly very high: much higher than the other
more conventional (but incomplete) measures, and far
too high to be ignored in public policy decisions. This
value also captures the intrinsic value of health, a
feature not shared by the other concepts.
Evaluating the evolution in life expectancy in the WHO
European Region in terms of the social welfare
costs/benefits illustrates the monetary impact of the
losses/gains. In the countries of the western part of the
Region life expectancy grew appreciably between 1970
and 2003. The value of the life expectancy gains were
worth 29–38% of GDP, varying by country and far
exceeding each country’s national health expenditures.
In the eastern European countries, where comparable
data were available only for 1990–2003, the variation
was even greater. Some countries suffered declines in
life expectancy and incurred a welfare loss of 16–31%,
others gained in life expectancy and realized benefits of
12–31% of gross domestic product (GDP).
Micro- and macroeconomic costs
The microeconomic perspective assesses costs at the
individual or household level, asking, for example,
whether being ill reduces an individual’s labour
productivity or the likelihood that one will be in work.
Macroeconomic consequences are viewed from the
national economy level, generally considering whether ill
health damages a country’s economic growth. Both
consequences are important for policy-makers, including
those outside the health sector, and may encourage
finance ministries to consider investing in health to
achieve their economic objectives. The micro perspective
is also specifically important for individuals, most of
whom are unaware of the extent that avoidable ill
health may affect different dimensions of their economic
well-being.
At microeconomic level, we focus on the labour market
impact of ill health without devaluing other channels,
such as education and savings. The labour market is a
key determinant of economic performance, and the
comparatively low labour productivity and labour supply
in Europe are among the prime reasons why the
European economy continues to lag behind that of the
United States. Research shows ill health to reduce labour
productivity measured by earnings in several cases and
Background document
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