3.3
Psychological Processes of the Negotiating Parties
The previous sections have already introduced us to several influencing factors on
negotiations that are inherent in the negotiators themselves. However, without
exception, this has related to factors that are set at the start of a negotiation, some
of which are even fully determined, such as gender or the cultural background of a
negotiator. In contrast, the following section focuses on dynamic factors in relation
to the negotiator, i.e. psychological processes that take place in the minds and
bodies of negotiators during the negotiation. These include conscious and uncon-
scious perception and information processing processes that determine the experi-
ence and actions in the negotiation interaction. At its core, this relates to the fact
that negotiators attempt to ascribe meaning to their experiences and actions and, in
doing so, are confronted with various challenges. As we will see, negotiators do not
“function” as “rational machines”, rather they are constantly deceived by their own
senses, as we already saw when discussing the development of negotiation
satisfaction.
3.3.1
Framing: The Different Glasses (Frames) Worn by a Negotiator
Negotiations are socially embedded, communicative situations with a considerable
scope for interpretation, which every negotiator experiences and interprets based on
his or her internal personal expectations and experience. Bateson (
1972
) and
Goffman (
1974
) describe the mechanism of attributing meaning in this kind of
situation as
Framing
.
A frame helps the negotiator to pay particular attention to
certain things in the negotiation, to interpret information in a certain way, and to
assign a certain form to a negotiation as well as change this form. Frames help us to
perceive and understand a person, an event, or a process in a certain light and to
separate this from the complex, random world around it. They also determine how
we record, process, and interpret general information and special elements of the
communication process (pattern of messages, linguistic and socially constructed
meanings) and how we behave ourselves (Putnam and Holmer
1992
, p. 129). For
example, the concept of a frame can help us understand why two people in the same
social situation perceive and interpret this situation differently (Lewicki et al.
2010
,
p. 142). Frames are particularly important in negotiations, as the conflicting interest
of the parties often do not come to light, but may be partially concealed, which
allows for a significant scope of interpretation that every negotiator fills with their
own experience. The way negotiators define and interpret certain negotiation issues
provides a clear indication of which points they find important, which objectives
they are pursuing, which information they are after, and which information they
ignore, as well as how they negotiate for their own cause (Lewicki et al.
2010
,
p. 142). It is important to note that negotiators always use frames, or that they are
always wearing certain glasses through which they perceive the negotiation and
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