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Endnotes

a

   1 This idea is supported by the National Com-

mission on Writing for America’s Families, 

Schools, and Colleges (2004); the Council 

of Writing Program Administrators, National 

Council of Teachers of English, and National 

Writing Project (2011); and the American 

Diploma Project (2004). The review for this 

practice guide tracked which studies included 

non-writing outcomes and only considered 

studies to be eligible if they included at least 

one writing outcome that met review require-

ments. Of the studies that included at least 

one writing outcome and met standards (and 

supported a recommendation), there were no 

studies that examined distal outcomes like 

college readiness or graduation rates. There 

were three studies that included reading out-

comes, and those are noted in Appendix D.

  2  Langer and Applebee (1987); Quitadamo and 

Kurtz (2007).

  3  Applebee and Langer (2011).

  4  Ibid.

  5  The protocol for this practice guide is avail-

able on the WWC website: http://www.what-

works.ed.gov. 

  6  As described in Appendix A, single case 

designs and regression discontinuity designs 

cannot contribute to the level of evidence for 

a recommendation. 

  7  Midgette, Haria, and MacArthur (2008).

  8  Stevens (2003).

  9  For more information on teaching English 

learners, see the Teaching Academic Content 

and Literacy to English Learners in Elemen-

tary and Middle School practice guide (Baker 

et al. 2014). 

10  Graham et al. (2012).

11  De La Paz and Graham (2002); Festas