Teach english new edition r

discourse markers
(that is, linguistic ways of perform ing these skills - m uch like linkers in more writing-like 
text) in order to operate effectively. Phrases such as ‘You may be right, b u t . . .’ or ‘Hold on, 
I’d just like to say t h a t . . . ’ or ‘Yes, b u t . . . ’ can help speakers take a turn. ‘And another thing 
. . . ’, ‘and that reminds me . . . ’, ‘I’ve nearly finished, but just before I do .. .’ help to keep a 
turn, whereas ‘uh uh’, ‘right’ and ‘yeah’ show that we are listening. Speakers of English need 
to recognise these discourse markers and be able to use them if they are to be successful 
conversationalists.
Language variables
The way English speakers use systems of grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation is 
dependent upon a num ber of variables. We will look at speaking and writing, register and 
language varieties.
Speaking and writing
The way we put words together in correct sequences is often influenced by whether or 
not we are doing it in speech or writing. For example, we find that in conversation we 
tend to use more contractions (e.g. ‘it is’ contracted to ‘it’s’, ‘I have’ contracted to ‘I’ve’ ) 
than in writing. In speech we m ight well shorten ‘It’s warm in here’ to ‘Warm in here’ or 
even ‘W arm’, though such 
ellipsis 
is less likely in writing. However, the choice of whether 
something is m ore or less speaking-like or writing-like may depend on the register the 
speaker is using.
Students of English need to be able to recognise the difference between m ore speaking­
like and writing-like language, and to use these differences creatively.
Recent com puter research has also shown that words are used differently in speech and 
writing. ‘However’ is more com m on in writing than speaking, for example, but ‘started’ is 
m uch more com m on than ‘began’ in speaking. People use ‘go’ and ‘be like’ to mean ‘said’ 
(‘She goes/She’s like “How are you feeling?” and I go/I’m like “Not so bad” . . . ’) in speech 
but almost never in writing.
Because speaking is often face-to-face and interactive, speakers can use