20/20 sent a camera crew to record the technique in action on the streets of Kansas City. Nobody
spotted anything. 20/20 came back again. The same thing happened—nothing. Whatever magical
skills Robert T. Gallagher possessed were not, apparently, transferable to the beat cops of Kansas
City. Two of the team’s best ideas for curbing gun violence had failed. They had one left.
3.
The winning entry in the Kansas City gun experiment was deceptively simple. It was based on a
quirk in the American legal system.
The Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution protects citizens from “unreasonable
searches and seizures.” That’s why the police cannot search your home without a warrant. On the
street, similarly, a police officer must have a good reason—“reasonable suspicion”—to frisk
you.
2
But if you’re in your car, that standard is not at all hard for a police officer to meet. Traffic
codes in the U.S. (and in fact in most countries) give police officers literally hundreds of reasons
to stop a motorist.
“There are moving violations: speeding, running a red light. There are equipment violations: a
light that doesn’t work, a tire not quite right,” legal scholar David Harris writes.
And then there are catch-all provisions: rules that allow police to stop drivers for conduct that
complies with all the rules on the books, but that officers consider “imprudent” or
“unreasonable” under the circumstances, or that describe the offense in language so broad as
to make a violation virtually coextensive with the officer’s unreviewable personal judgment.
There was even a Supreme Court case in which a police officer in North Carolina stopped
what he thought was a suspicious driver, using the pretext that one of the car’s brake lights was
out. As it turns out, it’s perfectly permissible in North Carolina to drive with one brake light out,
so long as the other one works. So what happened after the driver of the car sued, claiming he
had been stopped illegally? The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the officer. It was enough that
he thought driving with only one brake light seemed like an infraction. In other words, police
officers in the United States not only have at their disposal a virtually limitless list of legal
reasons to stop a motorist; they are also free to add any other reasons they might dream up, as
long as they seem reasonable. And once they’ve stopped a motorist, police officers are allowed,
under the law, to search the car, so long as they have reason to believe the motorist might be
armed or dangerous.
Kansas City decided to take advantage of this latitude. Sherman’s proposal was for the police
department to detail four officers, in two squad cars. Their beat would be District 144. They were
told not to stray outside the area’s 0.64 square miles. They were freed from all other law-
enforcement obligations. They didn’t have to answer radio calls or rush to accident scenes. Their
instructions were clear: watch out for what you think are suspicious-looking drivers. Use
whatever pretext you can find in the traffic code to pull them over. If you’re still suspicious,
search the car and confiscate any weapon you find. The officers worked every night from 7 p.m.
to 1 a.m., seven days a week, for 200 consecutive days. And what happened? Outside District
144, where police business was conducted as usual, crime remained as bad as ever. But inside
144? All of the new focused police work cut gun crimes—shootings, murders, woundings—in
half.
Remember, the police had all but given up by that point. Hotline? Nobody calls it. Concealed-
weapons detection? A crew from 20/20 comes down and twice goes home empty-handed. Lee
Brown, up in New York City, was mourning the powerlessness of the police to do anything
serious about violent crime. Everyone remembered the previous Kansas City experiment, which
had plunged the law-enforcement community into twenty years of despair. But now the same
city had come back, and this time they were declaring victory. “I don’t know why it didn’t occur
to us to really focus on guns,” the Kansas City police chief said after the results came in. He was
as stunned as everyone else at what just two extra patrol cars had accomplished. “We usually
focus on getting the bad guys after a crime. Maybe going after guns was too simplistic for us.”
The first Kansas City experiment said that preventive patrol was useless, that having more
police cars driving around made no difference. The second Kansas City experiment amended that
position. Actually, extra patrol cars did make a difference—so long as officers took the initiative
and stopped anyone they thought suspicious, got out of their cars as much as possible, and went
out of their way to look for weapons. Patrol worked if the officers were busy. The statistics from
the final report on the experiment were eye-opening. Over the seven months, each patrol car
issued an average of 5.45 traffic citations per shift. They averaged 2.23 arrests per night. In just
200 days, the four officers had done more “policing” than most officers of that era did in their
entire careers: 1,090 traffic citations, 948 vehicle stops, 616 arrests, 532 pedestrian checks, and
29 guns seized. That’s one police intervention every forty minutes. On a given night in the tiny
0.64 square miles of 144, each squad car drove about twenty-seven miles. The officers weren’t
parked on a street corner, eating doughnuts. They were in constant motion.
Police officers are no different from the rest of us. They want to feel that their efforts are
important, that what they do matters, that their hard work will be rewarded. What happened in
District 144 provided exactly what the profession of law enforcement had been searching for:
validation.
“Officers who recovered a firearm received favorable notoriety from their peers, almost to the
point that recovery of a firearm came to be a measure of success,” Shaw wrote in his account of
the program. “Officers could frequently be heard making statements such as ‘I’ve just got to get
a gun tonight,’ or ‘I haven’t gotten a gun yet; tonight will be the night!’”
In 1991 the New York Times ran a front-page story on the miracle in Kansas City. Larry
Sherman says that over the next few days his phone rang off the hook: 300 police departments
around the country bombarded him with requests for information on how he had done it. One by
one, police departments around the country followed suit. To give one example, the North
Carolina State Highway Patrol went from 400,000 to 800,000 traffic stops a year in the space of
seven years.
The Drug Enforcement Agency used “Operation Pipeline” to teach tens of thousands of local
police officers across the United States how to use Kansas City–style traffic stops to catch drug
couriers. Immigration officials started using police stops to catch undocumented immigrants.
Today, police officers in the United States make something like twenty million traffic stops a
year. That’s 55,000 a day. All over the United States, law enforcement has tried to replicate the
miracle in District 144. The key word in that sentence is tried. Because in the transition from
Kansas City to the rest of the country, something crucial in Lawrence Sherman’s experiment was
lost.
4.
The Lawrence Sherman who went to Kansas City is the same Larry Sherman who had worked
with David Weisburd in Minneapolis a few years earlier, establishing the Law of Crime
Concentration. They were friends. They taught together for a time at Rutgers, where their
department chairman was none other than Ronald Clarke, who had done the pioneering work on
suicide. Clarke, Weisburd, and Sherman—with their separate interests in English town gas, the
crime map of Minneapolis, and guns in Kansas City—were all pursuing the same revolutionary
idea of coupling.
And what was the principal implication of coupling? That law enforcement didn’t need to be
bigger; it needed to be more focused. If criminals operated overwhelmingly in a few
concentrated hot spots, those crucial parts of the city should be more heavily policed than
anywhere else, and the kinds of crime-fighting strategies used by police in those areas ought to
be very different from those used in the vast stretches of the city with virtually no crime at all.
“If crime is concentrated on a few percent of the city streets,” Weisburd asked, “why the hell
are you wasting resources everywhere? If it’s coupled to those places and doesn’t move easily,
even more so.” The coupling theorists believed they had solved the problem that had so
confounded the earlier days of preventive patrol. How do you effectively patrol a vast urban area
with a few hundred police officers? Not by hiring more police officers, or by turning the entire
city into a surveillance state. You do it by zeroing in on those few specific places where all the
crime is.
But think back to those statistics from North Carolina. If you go from 400,000 traffic stops in
one year to 800,000 seven years later, does that sound like focused and concentrated policing?
Or does that sound like the North Carolina State Highway Patrol hired a lot more police officers
and told everyone, everywhere, to pull over a lot more motorists? The lesson the law-
enforcement community took from Kansas City was that preventive patrol worked if it was more
aggressive. But the part they missed was that aggressive patrol was supposed to be confined to
places where crime was concentrated. Kansas City had been a coupling experiment.
Weisburd and Sherman say they have trotted out their maps and numbers, trying to convince
their peers of the Law of Crime Concentration, to little effect. Back in the 72nd precinct in
Brooklyn where he began his work, after a long day roaming the neighborhood, Weisburd would
turn to the police officers he had been walking with and say, “Isn’t it strange how we’re
returning again and again to the same blocks?” They would look at him blankly.
“I was in a meeting with the deputy commissioner [of police] in Israel,” Weisburd recalls.
Someone at the meeting said, “Well, David finds that crime doesn’t just move around the
corner. And that would suggest that you ought to become more focused.” This guy turned
around and he said, “My experience tells me that that’s just not true. I don’t believe that.”
That was the end of that.
3
Is something wrong with Israel’s deputy commissioner of police? Not at all. Because his
reaction is no different from the behavior of the highway patrol in North Carolina, or the Golden
Gate Bridge Authority, or the literary scholars who speak confidently of Sylvia Plath’s doomed
genius. There is something about the idea of coupling—of the notion that a stranger’s behavior is
tightly connected to place and context—that eludes us. It leads us to misunderstand some of our
greatest poets, to be indifferent to the suicidal, and to send police officers on senseless errands.
So what happens when a police officer carries that fundamental misconception—and then you
add to that the problems of default to truth and transparency?
You get Sandra Bland.
1
Wilson first experimented with preventive patrol when he was the chief of police in Wichita, Kansas. He would later hold
the same post in Chicago.
2
To deal with that hurdle, for example, Gallagher developed all kinds of tricks. He and his partner would approach
someone they thought was carrying a gun. They’d corner him, so he was feeling a little defensive. Then Gallagher would
identify himself: I’m a police officer.
“When you stop a man with a gun, 99 out of 100 times he’s going to do the same thing,” Gallagher told a reporter years ago.
“He’s going to turn the side that the gun’s on away from you—either several inches, just a quick turn of the hip, or halfway
around. And the hand and arm are going to come naturally in the direction of the gun,” in an instinctive protective motion.
“At that point you don’t have to wait to see if he goes under the shirt for the gun or if he’s just going to keep it covered,” he
said. “At that point you have all the right in the world to do a frisk.”
3
One of Weisburd’s former students, Barak Ariel, went so far as to test resistance to the coupling idea in the Derry region
of Northern Ireland. Law-enforcement officers in Derry are asked to identify specific troubled areas of their beats that they
think are going to require additional police presence. Their predictions are called “waymarkers.” Ariel wondered: how
closely do the police officers’ waymarkers match up with the hot spots where crime actually happens in Derry? I think you
can guess. “The majority of streets included in ‘Waymarkers’ were neither ‘hot’ nor ‘harmful,’ resulting in a false positive
rate of over 97 percent,” Ariel concluded. This means that 97 percent of the blocks identified by police officers as being
dangerous and violent were not dangerous and violent at all. The officers who drew these waymarkers were not sitting
behind a desk, remote from the direct experience of the streets. This was their turf. These were crimes they investigated and
criminals they arrested. Yet somehow they could not see a fundamental pattern in the location of the strangers they were
arresting.
CHAPTER
TWELVE
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