Subject matter of translation. Different trends in the theory of translation. General and special branches theory of translation. Types of translation. Translation as an act of communication. Problems for discussion

The situational model of translationis based on situational analysis in linguistics, developed by V. G. Gak , J. Catford (UK) and others. It is based on the assumption that languages use somewhat different sets of semantic components (constituents of meaning) to describe identical extra linguistic situations. Russian verbs of motion contain the component of mode but not always the direction of movement while their English equivalents are often neutral with regard to the mode but always specify the direction (cf. Вот он идёт- Here he comes/Here he goes). The situational model provides some interesting insights into the mechanism of translation, especially when a situation is described in different semantic categories (cf. Проточный пруд and spring-fed pond) but does not seem to apply to sentences going beyond a mere description of a situation.
Different translation models complement each other and should therefore be combined in analyzing translation as a process.
The nature of translation
Translation may be viewed as an interlingual communicative act in which at least three participants are involved: the sender or source (the author of the source-language message), the translator who acts in dual capacity - as the receptor of the source-language message and as the sender of the equivalent target-language message), and the receptor of the target-language message (translation). If the original was not intended for a foreign-language receptor, there is one more participant: the source-language receptor for whom the message was originally produced. Translation as such consists in producing a text (message) in the target language, equivalent to the original text (message) in the source-language. Translation as an interlingual communicative act includes two phrases: communication between the sender and the translator and communication between the translator and the receptor of the newly produced target-language text. In the first phase the translator, acting as a source-language receptor, analyses the original message, extracting the information contained in it.
In the second stage, the translator acts as a target-language sender, producing an equivalent message in the target language and re­directing it to the target-language receptor.
In producing the target-language text the translator changes its plan of expression (linguistic form) while its plan of content (meaning) should remain unchanged. In fact, an equivalent (target-language) message should match the original in the plane of content. The message, produced by the translator, should evoke practically the same response in the target-language receptor as the original message in the source-language receptor. That means, above all, that whatever the text says and whatever it implies should be understood in the same way by both the source-language user for whom it was originally intended and by the target-language user. It is therefore the translator's duty to make available to the target-language receptor the maximum amount of information, carried by linguistic signs, including both their denotational (referential) meanings (i.e. information about the extralinguistic reality which they denote) and their emotive-stylistic connotations.
MAIN TYPES OF TRANSLATION
Language is the most important mean in the communication and conversation process of people with each other. This conversation is implemented both oral and written form. People who speak the same language can communicate each other without any other means but it is problematic for people with different languages. Translation plays an important role in solving such kind of problems. The necessity and requirement for translators and their duties are becoming more essential issue. The significance of translation is, and would remain for many years, very high. A literary work created in one language, any scientific invention, their translation and the changes during the translation cause two contrary opinions among scientists. Some specialists say that translation is the rendering the words from one language into another and it can’t express the feelings and main aim of the author. On the contrary, others say that a perfect language can express the full meaning of any creative work written in another language. According to the opinions given above I am going to emphasize the translation of literary works and some difficulties met during the translation process. The three following ways are widely used in the translation of literary works.
1. Word for word translation. This way is the kind of translating the text without any changes from semantic or logical sides. It often serves as a base in expressing the topic more widely.
2. Logical translation. This way is used for opening the idea of the source text. This kind of translation widely uses the lexical and syntactic changes in the language and delivers the feelings and emotions to the reader.
3. Literary translation. This kind of translation way demands being creative together with translating skill. In consequence, this way is causing many arguments and contrasts of opinions in science. One of the most often met difficulties in translation is that the source and target languages belong to different cultures. For instance, works which are written in Arabic are full of sacred pieces taken from the Koran and their translation and meaning may be difficult to understand for people of other religion. As a result, understanding different cultures becomes more difficult than understanding different languages. Another difficulty is the translation of the text which describes the traditions belonging to some nation or a certain area. Let’s take the “kidnapping girl” tradition of Kazakh people as an example. This is an ordinary situation for Kazakh people, but for the people of other nations it may be regarded as breaking human rights or out-of-date custom. Also, the words or terms belonging to a certain nation or area may have no equivalent in another language. In the cases like this the translator should give definition to these words. As it is seen the syntactic ways of two languages can’t always suit with each other. In the word for word translation of the text the syntactic norms of the language are broken. As a result of this the meanings in source and translated texts are sometimes different from each other. The language of the author and his aim are definite, but the expressing way is unfamiliar for the target language. A translator should deliver the feelings and emotions of the author and characters by using necessary methods of literature. The following methods are used in the editing process of some texts in literary translation. -
Epithets are translated considering the described word and its usage by the structure and semantic peculiarities;
- Comparisons are translated considering the stylistic diversity of the text; - Metaphors are translated semantically considering the interactions among the characters;
- Neologisms are translated by using new, modern words keeping the original meaning;
Irony is translated by comparing the incomparable words in the contrast way; - Topology and sensible names — the names of places and people are translated by keeping the meaning in order to make impression on readers. - The syntactic peculiarity of the source text: — it is considered an appropriate way of translation joining short sentences into one long, and dividing long sentences into short meaningful ones. - The language of dialect is mainly expressed by the words and phrases which exist on the target language. Any translation work should indicate the skill and peculiarity of the translator. Therefore, the main duty of the translator is trying to create the perfect translation of the work by using all the skill and methods existing in the language. Certainly, alternations, omissions and additions are used in any translation. Even in in any perfect translation work the difference from the source text is visible. The amount of these diversities shows the quality of the translation. Literary translation is such kind of art which requires creativeness and writing skills from the translator. The translator always works on his language and method as a writer, watches the changes in language and serves as a bridge in the awareness of readers from world literature.

Though the basic characteristics of translation can be observed in all translation events, different types of translation can be singled out depending on the predominant communicative function of the source text or the form of speech involved in the translation process. Thus we can distinguish between literary and informative translation, on the one hand, and between written and oral translation (or interpretation), on the other hand.

Informative translation is rendering into the target language non-literary texts, the main purpose of which is to convey a certain amount of ideas, to inform the reader. However, if the source text is of some length, its translation can be listed as literary or informative only as an approximation. Literary works are known to fall into a number of genres. Literary translations may be subdivided in the same way, as each genre calls for a specific arrangement and makes use of specific artistic means to impress the reader. Translators of prose, poetry or plays have their own problems. Each of these forms of literary activities comprises a number of subgenres and the translator may specialize in one or some of them in accordance with his talents and experience.
A number of subdivisions can be also suggested for informative translations, though the principles of classification here are somewhat different. Here we may single out translations of scientific and technical texts, of newspaper materials, of official papers and some other types of texts such as public speeches, political and propaganda materials, advertisements, etc., which are, so to speak, intermediate, in that there is a certain balance between the expressive and referential functions, between reasoning and emotional appeal.
As the names suggest, in written translation the source text is in written form, as is the target text. In oral translation or interpretation the interpreter listens to the oral presentation of the original and translates it as an oral message in TL. As a result, in the first case the Receptor of the translation can read it while in the second case he hears it.
There are also some intermediate types. The interpreter rendering his translation by word of mouth may have the text of the original in front of him and translate it "at sight". A written translation can be made of the original recorded on the magnetic tape that can be replayed as many times as is necessary for the translator to grasp the original meaning. The translator can dictate his "at sight" translation of a written text to the typist or a short-hand writer with TR getting the translation in written form.
These are all, however, modifications of the two main types of translation. The line of demarcation between written and oral translation is drawn not only because of their forms but also because of the sets of conditions in which the process takes place. The first is continuous, the other momentary. In written translation the original can be read and re-read as many times as the translator may need or like. The same goes for the final product. The translator can re-read his translation, compare it to the original, make the necessary corrections or start his work all over again. He can come back to the preceding part of the original or get the information he needs from the subsequent messages. These are most favourable conditions and here we can expect the best performance and the highest level of equivalence. That is why in theoretical discussions we have usually examples from written translations where the translating process can be observed in all its aspects.
The conditions of oral translation impose a number of important restrictions on the translator's performance. Here the interpreter receives a fragment of the original only once and for a short period of time. His translation is also a one-time act with no possibility of any return to the original or any subsequent corrections. This creates additional problems and the users have sometimes to be content with a lower level of equivalence.
There are two main kinds of oral translation — consecutive and simultaneous. Interpreting requirements – depending on the type of interpreting one is engaged in – can range from simple, general conversation, to highly technical exposes and discussions. In consecutive translation the translating starts after the original speech or some part of it has been completed. Here the interpreter's strategy and the final results depend, to a great extent, on the length of the segment to be translated. If the segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closely follows the original speech. As often as not, however, the interpreter is expected to translate a long speech which has lasted for scores of minutes or even longer. In this case he has to remember a great number of messages and keep them in mind until he begins his translation. To make this possible the interpreter has to take notes of the original messages, various systems of notation having been suggested for the purpose. The study of, and practice in, such notation is the integral part of the interpreter's training as are special exercises to develop his memory.
Sometimes the interpreter is set a time limit to give his rendering, which means that he will have to reduce his translation considerably, selecting and reproducing the most important parts of the original and dispensing with the rest. This implies the ability to make a judgement on the relative value of various messages and to generalize or compress the received information. The interpreter must obviously be a good and quickwitted thinker.
In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his translation while the speaker is uttering the original message. This can be achieved with a special radio or telephone-type equipment. The interpreter receives the original speech through his earphones and simultaneously talks into the microphone which transmits his translation to the listeners. This type of translation involves a number of psycholinguistic problems, both of theoretical and practical nature.
This is a highly specialized form of interpreting, which requires a special aptitude. The interpreter has to be able to listen to the speaker and repeat the same words in a different language almost at the same time. This takes a great deal of training and experience, and is paid at a higher rate than consecutive.
Simultaneous interpretation may be required for such things as business or professional conferences, training seminars, or presentations. A simultaneous interpretation longer than two hours requires at least two interpreters to allow for rest periods