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The Semicolon and the Colon
N ow let us proceed to a study of the non-paired punctuation marks with their individual peculiarities, from the grammatical viewpoint.
What grammatical information do we derive from a semicolon in a sentence, that is, what can we suppose about he structure of the sentence, before we take a look at the actual words composing it? It is not possible here to say anything with absolute certainty, as the use of the semicolon is not circumscribed by strict rules. However, more likely than not, a sentence containing a semicolon will be a composite sentence, and very likely a compound one, with the semicolon separating two independent clauses from one another. This is the case, for instance, in the following examples: He had tried to kill Mrs Moore this evening, on the roof of the Nawab Bahadur's house; but she still eluded him, and the atmosphere remained tranquil. (FORSTER) Both before and after the semicolon there is at least one independent clause. I had only seen the poor creature for a few hours when she was taken ill; really this has been needlessly distressing, it spoils one's home-coming. (Idem) In this particular case what precedes the semicolon is a combination of a main and a subordinate clause; what follows it is a combination of two independent clauses. If we were to apply the term "sentence" somewhat loosely, we might say that the semicolon is preceded by a complex sentence and followed by a compound one. What matters, however, is that in each of the two halves there is an independent clause, and thus the sentence may be termed compound in the first place.
Occasionally, however, this general principle of a semicolon being a sign of a compound sentence will not hold good. There may be special reason inducing a writer to use a semicolon outside a compound sentence; and this will mainly happen in a sentence having a certain amount of commas within it, when some division in the sentence has to be marked off by some punctuation mark stronger than a comma. This is, for instance, the case in the sentence from Norton which we quoted on p. 342.
Thus the semicolon is a punctuation mark affording high probability, but not certainty, of the sentence being compound.
The colon, in so far as grammar is concerned, is rather similar in function to the semicolon. It also is a pretty sure signal of a compound sentence, with the additional shade of meaning of the latter part giving some explanation or illustration of what has been stated in the former. Here is a clear example from E. M. Forster: And it seemed to him for a time that the dead awaited him, and when the illusion faded it left behind it an emptiness that was almost guilt: "This really is the end," he thought, "and I gave her the final blow." What follows the colon is the statement of his thoughts»
Punctuation
i llustrating the idea of guilt mentioned in the first part (that preceding the colon).
A similar example is found in the same author: Fielding was a blank, frank atheist, but he respected every opinion his friend held: to do this is essential to friendship. The part preceding the colon in this case is itself a compound sentence (in a somewhat loose application of the term); this, however, is irrelevant for the fact that the colon is a signal of a compound sentence, in so far as there is an independent clause on either side of it.
The function of the colon is somewhat more complicated because it is occasionally used to introduce direct speech. It is well known, however, that this use of the colon is much less characteristic of English than of Russian: in English direct speech is often preceded by a comma, especially if it does not begin a new paragraph.
The grammatical significance of the comma is much harder to define. Its uses are so varied that it appears to be practically impossible to give it a general characteristic: it may mark the end of a main clause, or of a subordinate clause, or it may stand between homogeneous members (whether subjects, predicates, predicatives, objects, adverbial modifiers, or attributes), or it may also mark off an apposition, a direct address, etc. The only thing that may perhaps be said about the function of the comma in general is, that it marks some kind of syntactical division. It will perhaps be best to illustrate this by pointing out contexts in which a comma would not be possible. These are:
(1) The group of attribute and head word (by attribute is meant one that is not loose). No comma would for instance be possible after the word one, or after two, or after distinct in the following sentence: At one period two distinct tombs containing Esmiss Esmoor's remains were reported. (FORSTER) (2) The group of subject and predicate. Thus, no comma would be possible after the word Fielding in the sentence, Fielding said no more (Idem), or after the word Weeks, or after eyes, or Philip, or American in the sentence Weeks spoke seriously, but his gray eyes twinkled a little at the end of his long speech, and Philip flushed when he saw that the American was making fun of him. (MAUGHAM) Commas are also impossible in certain other groups, as between a preposition and a noun. The essential point is, that a comma does mark some kind of grammatical division, at least that between homogeneous parts of a sentence or that between a loose secondary part and the rest of the sentence. The more exact function of a comma in every given case can only be made out by considering its syntactical surroundings.
Such, then, would appear to be the grammatical functions of punctuation marks. They might also be shown by a very simple experiment: dropping all punctuation marks from a certain passage in a text and finding out what points in the grammatical structure
The Comma 345
o f the passage are lost or at least obscured by this omission. This would reveal the exact value of punctuation from the grammatical viewpoint. 1
The function of inverted commas, or quotation marks (" "), stands somewhat apart from that of other punctuation marks. From the grammatical viewpoint inverted commas appear to have no significance.
1 A similar investigation might be made about the grammatical value of intonation. But this would require experimental study of English pronunciation, which lies beyond the scope of this book. Some main points concerning the grammatical value of intonation are to be found in books on phonetics.
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