Conclusion
The Wittenoom blue asbestos mine closed in 1966. In light of the high number of deaths in
the Wittenoom worker and resident population, it is considered Australia’s worst industrial
disaster. In fact, long after the surviving Wittenoom residents have passed away, deaths will
continue to occur as a result of environmental exposure to products containing Wittenoom’s
blue asbestos. CSR used the fibre in its Building Materials Division to develop products used
widely in Australia. It also sold the blue asbestos fibre to various Australian manufacturers,
including James Hardie, Australia’s largest manufacturer of asbestos products, and exported
it to North and South America, Europe and Asia. One of the many uses of asbestos is in
underground cement pipes which carry water to our homes. In Australia, many do-it-yourself
renovators remain unaware of the presence of asbestos in older homes and the dangers
they face should they disturb the fibre — as I did before undertaking this research.
CSR’s take over of the Wittenoom blue asbestos mine in 1943 occurred at a time
when the global industry was rapidly expanding. The benefits of the strengthening and
insulating qualities of asbestos fibre, often called the “magic mineral”, led to its use in over
3,000 products world wide. In the eyes of the asbestos industry, the benefits far outweighed
any dangers. The industry ignored the mounting international research linking occupational
and environmental exposure to asbestosis and lung cancer. The Australian Commonwealth
Health Department had listed asbestos as a health hazard in 1922. Yet in the 1950s and
1960s the Commonwealth and Western Australian governments encouraged CSR’s
involvement in asbestos mining.
Despite CSR’s initial hesitancy, the Wittenoom mine proceeded once Commonwealth
and Western Australian governments provided considerable financial support. The sugar
company experienced great difficulties in retaining a stable and experienced workforce at the
mine. By 1950, it had become clear to the Australian government that its migration policy,
designed to attract the fair skinned migrants such as the Scandinavians, had failed to
produce sufficient numbers to fill available jobs in its National Development Projects, which
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included the Wittenoom blue asbestos mine. This led to the recruitment of experienced
miners in northern Italy. CSR’s recruitment strategy complemented the Italian government’s
plan for millions of its unemployed working class citizens to emigrate in order to find work.
The operators of the Island of Elba coalmine, itself facing a serious economic crisis, were
also aware of ABA Limited’s search for suitable workers for their asbestos mine. They too
encouraged their workers to emigrate and work at Wittenoom, rather than face
unemployment in Italy. From these early recruits the word spread about the high wages at
the Australian mine. Despite being made aware of the poor conditions 1100 Italians, many
with families, went to Wittenoom. The company had failed to warn any of the workers of the
dangers of blue asbestos exposure.
This thesis has documented the ways in which the Wittenoom Italians made meaning
of their complex lives: in Italy, during their time at the Wittenoom Gorge, and during their
subsequent sistemazione in Western Australia or Italy. My analysis of the interviews and
documents dealt with several themes: the Wittenoom Italians’ motivations for immigrating to
Australia; the impact of having lived and worked in Wittenoom on the men, women and
children; the Italians’ subsequent endeavours to achieve and consolidate sistemazione; why
CSR closed down the mine in 1966; the evolution of the scientific knowledge on asbestos in
Australia and more particularly, Western Australia; the consequences of the contrary position
of the Department of Mines and CSR to the Department of Health on workers’ and residents’
health; and CSR’s strategy to avoid legal liability for asbestos-related diseases arising from
asbestos exposure at Wittenoom. The role of the Wittenoom asbestos mine in the lives and
deaths of Italian transnational workers has, in fact, been far more complex than I had
assumed when I first undertook this research.
At the time of CSR’s entry into asbestos mining in the early 1940s, many of the
participants in this research were children, adolescents or young adults coming to terms with
the impact of the war on their lives. From my previous reading on Italian migration history
and my family’s migration stories I had believed that it was the economic impact and physical
devastation of World War 2 alone which had prompted Italians to emigrate. Yet, as I outlined
in Chapter Three, participants’ narratives spoke of the hardship and personal tragedies
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working class Italians had faced in everyday life before World War 2. The war had merely
exacerbated their situation. Their stories also highlighted their spirit of youth and their desire
for adventure. Families who had had no choice but to separate when breadwinners left to
find jobs were reunited in Australia. Working class Italians had already experienced several
migration trajectories within Italy or to neighbouring European countries. Most had only been
able to find seasonal jobs or short term employment. To reunite families and redress the
immediate need for permanent work, men took up the offer of work in Western Australia and
at the Wittenoom blue asbestos mine. Hardship and economic necessity made Italian
migrants ideal workers for jobs which Australians refused to undertake.
Unrelenting heat, difficult working conditions and meagre living arrangements
epitomized life in the remote mining town. Attracted by earnings far greater than they had
previously known, Italians — the largest of the 52 migrant groups present in Wittenoom —
tended to stay longer, particularly if accompanied by their families. Chapter Four contends
that the information early recruits received through interpreters during their interview in Italy
differed from the conditions they found and those briefly outlined in the employment contract.
Wittenoom’s physical geography bore no resemblance to the landscape and climate where
they lived in Italy. The dusty conditions in the mill and low stope height in the mine were
worse than anything they had ever experienced in Italian or Belgian mines, in French
chemical factories or on the construction sites for Italy’s underground passes and the Alpine
dam projects.
Conditions at Wittenoom were soul destroying for most, and the reason for the highly
transient population. The early Lombard and Island of Elba recruits were experienced
miners, unlike the workers from the Trentino Alto Adige and others who followed. The dusty
and crammed conditions pushed the majority of experienced Lombard miners, who had
come without families, to leave once they had repaid the air fare. Lack of money, on the
other hand, forced those from the Island of Elba and Trentino Alto Adige — all with
accompanying families — to see out their two year contracts and then extend their stay for
several more years. The high cost of living, the sending of remittances home to Italy and the
need to repay air fares meant it took longer to accumulate savings to buy a house, farm or
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business and a return ticket to Italy, if repatriation figured in their plans. During the 1950s and
1960s, despite the word spreading about the difficult working conditions in Wittenoom, the
high earnings continued to attract the Italians. They tolerated the conditions in order to
achieve their financial goals. Single Italians also stayed for extended periods or returned for
a second stint. They were drawn by the high earnings, the freer lifestyle or were saving for a
home because of their impending marriage. Elsewhere in Western Australia they had earned
lower wages and faced an uncertain economic and employment situation.
Reminiscent of their life back in Italy, the young men’s accounts and available photos
show how they entertained themselves, often using humour to deal with the loneliness and to
forget the difficult working conditions for a while. A number were drawn into the gambling and
drinking. Most drank because of the heat. The photo of one young Italian jokingly pouring a
bottle of beer down the throat of another was, however, probably not far from the truth for
some men. Single and married men alike gambled away hard won earnings, in the hope of
winning the elusive pot. It usually contained thousands of pounds and the IOUs of men
desperate to leave. Loss of their weekly earnings brought tears and despair. The gambling
and drinking for many only served to lengthen a man’s stay.
Those who kept their distance from the gambling and limited their drinking earned
large sums of money. Italians, in particular, became highly sought after by CSR because of
their productivity. They nevertheless had to make disproportionate sacrifices. CSR rarely
followed the advice it received to complete maintenance and improvements at the mine and
the mill. They did, however, invest in infrastructure to increase production, almost invariably
at the expense of occupational health and safety, as we saw in Chapter Nine. Work in the
mine was backbreaking, while the mill’s high dust levels made it impossible to recognize a
worker standing a metre away. The longer staying and hard working Italians were exposed to
high levels of dust, developing asbestosis in shorter time frames than previously reported
among any other workers. ABA Limited executives and administrative staff working in the
nearby office were also exposed, as were the women and children eleven kilometres away in
the town. Asbestos fibres arrived in the town on the prevailing winds or were in the tailings
laid in the town to contain the rest dust. Participants in this research stated they were
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unaware of the health implications of asbestos exposure. They would never have gone,
taken or given birth to children, had they known — an argument difficult to dispute. Drawn
together in the face of Wittenoom’s adversity, many enduring friendships were forged among
the men, women and children regardless of their ethnic background.
The women’s perspective on life in Wittenoom described in Chapter Five and the
childhood experiences outlined in Chapter Six suggest the growing sense of community and
normality their presence engendered in what was a predominantly male dominated mining
town. The establishment of this sense of community was exemplified in the Italians’
participation in the building of the Catholic church and involvement in the celebration of the
mass, the opening of the Italian style bar and their attendance at and organization of many of
the social activities which had increased with the arrival of the women and children.
Importantly, the tightly-knit community provided a secure environment for the children to play
and explore. As parents worked, the children experienced an idyllic lifestyle, something
which they had not known in Perth or Italy. They attended school, where homework was
apparently unheard of. Their curiosity got them into trouble; they experienced their emerging
sexuality; and once old enough the boys found work as bus drivers, boiler makers and
mechanics, and the girls were employed in the General Store.
The character and resilience of the women is confirmed in their accounts of everyday
life. Once the initial tears over the living conditions had stopped, the women who stayed got
on with life as best they could. Their presence injected a sense of normality. This was
evident in the reintroduction of traditional rites of passage and rituals; their provision of
emotional and practical support for their husbands and to young, lonely boarders; and the
responsibility they assumed for the family purse. Reflecting the growing trend among migrant
women in the 1950s and 60s, many Italian women in Wittenoom engaged in paid work as
well as caring for their families. In order to contribute to the family’s savings, many opened
boarding houses, while some found work in the town. Mirroring the hardships and tragedies
many had experienced in Italy, women had to deal with difficult childbirths and the death of
their young children. Male and female participants’ experience of hardship in Italy and their
determination to endure the conditions at Wittenoom suggest the mining town was but one
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more experience of hardship they would have to overcome. They were more likely to make
sacrifices because of the tangible rewards Italian couples’ combined efforts produced:
homes, businesses and farms and the creation of a more secure future for their children.
Chapter Seven and Eight trace the pathways to sistemazione and the asbestos-
related diseases which emerged in the process. Once most had accumulated sufficient
savings, they left to consolidate their sistemazione in Italy, or in Western Australia. By the
time of Wittenoom’s closure in 1966 many ex-Wittenoom Italian families were living in a fully
paid home, had bought farms or set up what were to become successful businesses, many
with their Wittenoom earnings. Continuing to reflect the trend among migrant females to
engage in paid work, many of the women worked or re-entered the workforce after the birth
of their children, with extended family providing child care. Personal drive, hard work,
entrepreneurship and resilience ultimately provided a secure sistemazione, even for those
who had returned from Wittenoom with little or nothing to show for their hard work. Most
single first generation Italians had chosen to marry within their regional community. The
couples then focused on creating a secure future for their families. They provided their
children with a higher standard of education or the opportunity to learn a trade, which in turn
has seen many of them become self-employed or engaged in white collar jobs.
As part of their sistemazione process Italians faced the decision of whether to remain
in Australia or repatriate to Italy. Repatriation often came down to the first generation’s
feelings of loss and their desire to return to Italy so that their children received an Italian
education and maintained their cultural heritage. Two main reasons emerged which
influenced Italians to remain in Australia. Where the children were ensconced in the
Australian way of life, the parents’ concern was that if they repatriated their children would
experience the same challenges they had as immigrants. Their children would be in a
country where they understood neither the language (or very little of it) nor the way of life. In
addition, they would have had to undertake the least-sort after jobs. There were also those
who settled in Australia because they were content with the life they were making for
themselves and their families.
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Regardless of where they settled, Italian parents and children have had to deal with
issues of identity and belonging. In Australia, first generation Italian parents and their children
straddled two cultures. Issues of identity and belonging typically emerged in their stories as
they spoke about the clash of the two cultures. Many reconciled these issues, as Australian
society embraced aspects of Italian culture and Italians adopted typically Australian
traditions. Making visits home to Italy has gone some way to address feelings of nostalgia
and a sense of loss. Nevertheless, these transnational Italians have experienced rejection as
domiciled Italians failed to acknowledge childhood bonds returning Italians had hoped to re-
establish. Repatriating Italians have also faced rejection. Italians who never left discounted
the contribution of emigrants to Italy’s economic growth. In contrast, repatriated Italians
argue that their remittances improved the lives of those who remained behind, while their
migration decision meant less competition for the jobs in the country’s newly developed
industries. To this day, several research participants remain ambivalent regarding their
identity and where they belong.
Where Wittenoom was concerned, I had believed it highly unlikely that anyone would
want to re-revisit the town where they had experienced asbestos exposure and the loss of a
loved one to an asbestos-related disease. When I found newspaper articles which spoke of
Venera Uculano and Umberto Favero’s love for Wittenoom, they came as a surprise. When I
finally spoke with them, I was even more surprised that they had lived there until 2002. Six
other participants spoke of their visits to Wittenoom to see where as children or adults they
had spent part of their early days in Australia. My visit in 2010 to the breathtaking Pilbara
with Emilia Oprandi, the daughter of one of the first Lombard miners recruited in early 1951,
went some way to explaining the connection and attraction many of the Wittenoom Italians
still feel for the place years later. We had all gone to Wittenoom despite the now known
health dangers. Emilia and I had made our decision based on the knowledge that
mesothelioma takes decades to develop; we would be dead from old age before we
developed the disease.
Participants’ narratives have described both the positive and negative consequences
of their time in Wittenoom. Chapter Eight illustrated how life changed for the worse as
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asbestos-related diseases took hold: those who had left Wittenoom with the early signs of
asbestosis gradually became more infirm and died. A significant number of those who had
left in a state of good health, years later were diagnosed with mesothelioma, dying within 12
months. It has left many fearful that they could die the same way. Others have gone on with
their lives, preferring to ignore the health consequences. For the first time, many Italians had
saved substantial sums of money and made investments which have provided them with a
comfortable lifestyle. In the 1960s public awareness concerning the extent of the company’s
knowledge and their strategy to cover up their negligence was still some 20 years away. Sick
men alternated between work and convalescence as their health deteriorated. They had
families to support, and at least wanted to provide a home for them.
Contrary to what I had expected, even where the memory of the loved one’s passing
due to an ARD was still uppermost in participants’ minds, or when they considered the health
consequences to themselves or other family members, their responses concerning the
impact of their Wittenoom experience proved to be complex. The rancour I had expected to
colour their stories was almost always absent. Intertwined with the grief and loss and the
feelings of betrayal by ABA Limited and CSR was their appreciation for the friendships they
had made, the idyllic childhood they had experienced and the sense of community they had
helped to create in the town. The more distant the memory of their lives in Wittenoom and
the passing of loved ones were the more tempered their attitude to the company appeared.
Their own thinking was philosophical, possibly influenced by their religious beliefs and the
acceptance of hardship and the inevitability of death.
Chapter Nine reveals what was known about asbestos-related diseases in Australia
from the early 1920s onwards. The Motley Rice documents suggest CSR’s and the
Department of Mines complicity in ignoring the available scientific knowledge on asbestosis,
lung cancer and mesothelioma. CSR in fact monitored the growing number of industrial
diseases as several items of CSR correspondence contained in the Motley Rice documents
reveal. This is at odds with various court transcripts of CSR executives’ evidence on what
they knew regarding the dangers. The Commonwealth and more particularly the Western
Australian government sanctioned CSR’s behaviour at Wittenoom by failing to instruct the
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Department of Mines to enforce the Mines Regulation Act. The Mines Inspectors reports and
the Department of Health’s ongoing representations expressing their concern about the
health consequences of asbestos exposure were ignored at all levels of government.
The stated reason for Wittenoom’s closure in 1966, ABA Limited’s financial losses of
$2.5 million, needs to be reconsidered in the light of the available evidence. In the late
1950s, ABA director, C.H. Broadhurst, acknowledged CSR’s participation in asbestos price
fixing. By that time James Hardie was purchasing half of Wittenoom’s asbestos production.
Wittenoom’s closure in 1966 came at a time when, despite the known hazards, global sales
in asbestos were on the increase. In the 1960s, despite fluctuating sales, CSR’s reports
suggested optimism regarding future sales. Realistically, nonetheless, they could not
compete internationally: South Africa’s production and labour costs, helped by the country’s
apartheid policy, were considerably lower than CSR’s. Given that CSR was monitoring the
number of industrial diseases at the mine and would have been aware of international events
such as Dr Irving Selikoff’s 1964 conference on asbestos attended by nearly 400 delegates,
the reason for the mine’s closure may have been influenced by the possibility of future
litigation and their inability to determine the future number of mesothelioma cases.
Media scrutiny in the early 1970s and the growing numbers of mesothelioma deaths
confirmed the company’s worst fears about damages claims. It no doubt prompted the name
change of Australian Blue Asbestos Limited to Midalco to remove any association with
asbestos. In the face of $2.5 million dollar losses reported in 1966, the removal of $7 million
dollars from the un-liquidated ABA Limited’s account, replaced with a $100,000 loan in 1975,
raises the question why $7 million was held in ABA Limited account for so long after the
mine’s closure. By 1977 the company’s clandestine gathering of some 20,000 documents on
Wittenoom and legal advice led them to the conclusion that they were negligent, culminating
in their decision to shelter behind Midalco’s limited liability. In the early unsuccessful
damages claims which began with Joan Joosten’s claim in 1979, CSR, nonetheless, supplied
only 30 documents during the course of legal discovery. Moral conscience and the sense of
responsibility to Wittenoom’s workers saw the leaking of evidence in 1988 proving CSR’s
negligence. Conscience had proven stronger than loyalty to the company at the moment
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when CSR would have finally been protected by the statute of limitations, rather than having
to pay out the hundreds of millions of dollars in damages claims CSR has paid out to date in
the US and Australia. The whistle blower remains unidentified, but must have come from
CSR’s senior ranks.
In 2010, CSR’s proposed demerger and subsequent sale of its sugar interest,
Sucrogen, sparked considerable concern among asbestos support groups in Australia, in
light of the James Hardie move off shore in 2001 and by 2003 the bankruptcy of the Medical
Research and Compensation Foundation established by James Hardie to pay future
asbestos damages claims. Treasurer Wayne Swan, in approving the sale of Sucrogen, put in
place several independent checks despite CSR’s assurances that it would meet its future
asbestos claims with the $1.6 billion proceeds of the sale. It does, however, remain to be
seen whether Wayne Swan has gone far enough to protect the interests of future asbestos
victims.
In the twenty-first century, the asbestos story goes on. Several developments
relevant to the unaddressed question of criminal negligence in the global asbestos history
have been heartening, while others continue to raise concern. In February 2012, in northern
Italy a Turin court sentenced two former members of the Swiss asbestos company, Eternit –
Stephan Schmidheiny, the former owner of Eternit, now in his sixties, and Baron Jean-Louis
Marie Ghislain de Cartier de Marchienne, a major shareholder and now 82 years old — to 16
years jail. The judge concluded that both men and Eternit were responsible for having
caused an environmental disaster and failing to comply with safety regulations, which
resulted in the asbestos-related deaths of over three thousand employees and residents. An
international asbestos corporation had finally been held accountable for its inaction in the
face of workers’ occupational health and safety. While most Western countries had banned
asbestos by the early years of the twenty-first century, the Canadian government only
withdrew its support for the country’s asbestos mines in late 2012. In contrast, developing
Asian countries such as India and the powerful economies of China and Russia still mine
asbestos and export products containing the fibre. Of concern for Australians was the news
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that a Chinese gasket containing asbestos went undetected by Australian Customs in 2010.
Consequently, the importance and significance of this research cannot be undervalued.
The dangers associated with asbestos exposure did not end with the closure of the
Wittenoom mine. The recording of the Italians’ history serves also to educate unsuspecting
people of the dangers of asbestos. The presence of asbestos in Australian homes, public
places and products highlights the need for ongoing warnings in the media to keep the
dangers of asbestos exposure in the public domain, and help avoid the development of more
cases of asbestos-related disease. This is something the Gillard government in 2010
seemed to want to address with the commissioning of the “Asbestos Management Review”.
From the review’s recommendations Bill Shorten, Minister for Employment and Workplace
Relations, announced in September 2012 the establishment of an Office of Asbestos Safety
to develop a national approach to asbestos management and the reduction of asbestos
exposure. The outcomes remain to be seen. In any case, the implementation and policing of
asbestos management plans will have its pitfalls, not unlike the monitoring of the working
conditions at Wittenoom by the Mines Inspectors and the failure of the Department of Mines
to enforce the Mines Regulations Act.
Importantly, this research has given a voice to thirty-six participants either as Italians
who were knowingly exposed to the dangers of asbestos at Wittenoom or as surviving family
members of deceased Wittenoom workers. Their accounts undoubtedly exemplify the stories
of the thousand other Italians I was unable to reach — either because they have already died
or due to time constraints of the research. The recording of their social history in this thesis
acknowledges their disproportionate contribution to Australia’s economic growth in the post-
war period.
The evidence presented in this thesis suggests that CSR and the Commonwealth and
Western Australian governments have all contributed to the deaths reported in the
Wittenoom population, as well as those which have and will continue to emerge in the
Australian general population and anywhere else blue asbestos was sold in the world. Yet,
unlike the Eternit owners, CSR was never held to account over their negligence. While many
of the Wittenoom Italians achieved sistemazione, its achievement has come at a price: the
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Italians would never have agreed to work in Wittenoom or taken their families had they been
informed of the irreversible health risks.
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