Scientific Collection «InterConf», (39): with the Proceedings of the 8th International Scientific and Practical Conference «Science and Practice: Implementation to Modern Society» (December 26-28, 2020) at Manchester, Great Britain

parts of the peninsula were under the influence of the Sasanian. 
In the work of Ibn Athir "Al-Kamil fi-t-ta'rih" ("Complete set of history") and in 
"Ta'rihi Tabari" it is said that in 6 A.H. (628 A.D.) Muhammad for the first time sent 
to the rulers of eight countries neighboring with Arabia “his messengers and called 
them to the recognition of one God. The first messenger was Khatib ibn Batla'a, who 
was directed towards Kibt (Egypt), whose ruler was Mukavkis. The next was sent 
Shuja 'ibn Wahb to the ruler of Sham al-Khoris ... and the eighth envoy, Abdollah ibn 
Kuzof al-Sahmi, was sent to the ruler of Ajam named Parviz ". [7] 
In the message sent with Abdollah ibn Kuzof it was written: “In the name of God, 
merciful and merciful. On behalf of Muhammad - the messenger of God, Khusraw - 
the head of the Persians. May the one who embarked on the path of instruction and 
believed in God and his prophet be welcomed and testifies that there is no God but one 
God. I am a prophet for all people, for the salvation of all living. Accept Islam for your 
salvation, otherwise sin will fall on you and prepare for war on the part of God and his 
prophet. Nobody can be saved. " Khusraw tore up Muhammad's letter and said: "Let 
his country fall apart.". [7] 
It was after this negative response from the Iranian Shah that the first Arab raids 
into the Sasanian Empire, which included Central Asia, began. After the death of 
Muhammad during 632-651, during the reign of four righteous caliphs, Muslims waged 
campaigns of conquest against neighboring and other countries and made significant 
progress in spreading Islam. From a political point of view, the period of the reign of 
the righteous caliphs was the period of the conquest of non-Islamic peoples: in 633-
634. Syria and Palestine, Egypt and the whole of Asia Minor were conquered, and the 
Arab troops reached the borders of Sasanian. 

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Arab troops in the Iranian direction first encountered the Iranians in the town of 
Khafir. This battle is known as the battle of Zanjir, in which Khalid ibn Walad, the 
leader of the Muslims, managed to defeat the Iranian troops and kill the Iranian 
commander Hurmuz. And in the next battle of the Arabs with the Iranians, which took 
place in 634 in a place called Mazor, the 50-thousandth army of Iran was defeated, and 
this opened the way for Muslims to the borders of Iran. 
According to E.A. Belyaev, who studied the Arab conquests of the 7th century. in 
Asia, Africa and Europe, the first period of Arab conquests took place during the reign 
of the first three caliphs - Abubakr, Umar and Uthman. The Iranian scientist Said Nafisi 
notes about the Arab conquests in Iran that the Arabs began their campaigns against 
the Iranians in 8 AH (630), when they first attacked Bahrain, which was part of the 
Sassanid state. The conquering warriors of the Arabs continued until 30 AH (651), 
when the Arabs managed to completely conquer Iran. 
With the assassination of the last shah of the Sassanid dynasty, Yezdigird III, an 
entire era of the ancient history of Iran ended, the end of one of the largest empires of 
antiquity - the Sasanian one, which existed for 425 years, came to an end. By the time 
of the reign of Caliph Uthman, the boundaries of the Arab Caliphate had expanded 
significantly. Covering this issue, the European researcher A. Muller notes: “At first, 
at the behest of the Caliph, the first wave was sent with irresistible force: it occupied 
Persia to Oxus, Syria, Mesopotamia, Armenia, some parts of Asia Minor to 
Constantinople, Egypt and the northern coast of Africa to Carthage inclusive ".[6] 
It should be noted that after Mu'awiyah ibn Abusufiyan came to power, the second 
stage of Islamic statehood began - the Umayyad caliphate (661-750), and this period 
of Umayyad rule can be described as the second stage of Arab conquests. For the final 
completion of the conquest of the eastern regions of Iran, Mu'awiyah appointed Qais 
ibn Haytham as the ruler of Khorasan, who within two years (662-663) managed to 
conquer Badghis, Herat, Bushandis and Balkh. Tajik historian G. Goibov writes about 
the first steps of Muaviya in the eastern direction: "He (Muaviya) paid special attention 
to Khorasan as an inexhaustible source of income for his treasury." [2, 86] 

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In the 50-60s of the 7th century the Arabs repeatedly raided the eastern regions of 
Khorasan, mainly from Merv in the northeastern direction and in the direction of 
Kabulistan. Caliph Mu'awiya appointed in 673-675 the governor of Khorasan, the son 
of Ziyad ibn Abusufyan - Ubaydullah. At this time, Maverannahr was going through a 
period of fragmentation, virtually all regions - Khatlon, Kumed, Vashgird, Vakhan, 
Shugnan, Vakhsh, Termez, Chaganiyan, Shuman, Akhorun, Bukhara, Kesh, Nakhshab, 
Sogd, Istaravshan, Chach, Fergana and Badakhshan, retained independence. There was 
a constant struggle between these possessions due to territorial claims. Before the 
Arabs entered Maverannahr, political fragmentation intensified even more. 
The main attention of Ubaydullah was directed to the mastery of the main centers 
of Central Asia - Bukhara and Samarkand. Here is how Tabari writes about this: 
“Ubaydullah reached Khorasan, crossed the river, riding a camel headed towards the 
Bukhara kuhistani (mountainous Bukhara). He was the first to conquer her. " This 
happened in 53 A.H. (673). A. Muller, highlighting the history of the caliphate of this 
period, notes that “... after Abd-al-malik (65-85 = 685-705) finally strengthened the 
dominion of the Umayyad dynasty, the Arab nation begins again under the almighty 
ruler Al-Walid (86-96 = 705-715) flood the lands and peoples with the second wave: to 
the east to the borders of India and Turkestan, to the north to the Caucasus and the walls 
of Constantinople. And westward to the Atlantic Ocean and further into the interior of 
France ... The great movement of the Arabs has reached its extreme limits". [6] 
It should be noted that during the reign of Caliph Abdulmalik ibn Muawiyah (685-
705) in Khorasan and Maverannahr, the predatory raids and campaigns of the Arabs 
were temporarily stopped. But this did not last long. After Hajaj ibn Yusuf was 
appointed ruler of Iraq, the Arab campaigns of conquest to the east became more 
frequent. The Tajik scientist A. Khaknazarov, studying the features of the Arab 
conquests in Central Asia, notes that before Qutayba, Arab conquerors, including 
Ubaydullah and Said, after their campaigns against Bukhara and Samarkand, received 
a large ransom from the rulers and the local population and paid almost no attention to 
the spread of Islam among the indigenous population. Kutaiba took this very seriously. 

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So, in order to teach the local population the religious rites of Islam and the rules for 
their implementation, he settled one Muslim warrior in each Bukhara family. 
After conquering Samarkand, Qutaiba again went to Balkh, and after Balkh he 
conquered Kesh, Nasaf, Khorezm, Khojand, Fergana. After Fergana, Kutaiba started 
looking for ways to China and reached Kashgar, the first large Chinese city. In Kashgar, 
he formed an embassy of 12 people, headed by Kasir ibn Falan, and sent the Chinese 
emperor to the palace. The Chinese emperor received the embassy. Muslims expressed 
their wishes and proposals to the emperor, who, having presented them, sent them back. 
After receiving an answer, Kutaiba returned to Merv. [7] 
On this, the campaigns of Kutayba in Maverannahr ended with the conquest of 
the region in 713-715. And after the conquest of Khatlon - the last region of Khorasan 
under the governor of Asad ibn Abdallah in 676-737, the conquest of Khorasan was 
completed. During the aggressive campaigns of the Arabs in Khorasan, which began 
during the reign of Caliph Uthman ibn Affan, 48 governors from the Umayyad and 
Abbasid dynasties ruled on this land. In the spread of Islam, mainly the governors from 
the Umayyad dynasty played an important role. 
One of the main directions of the Arab policy in the occupied territories, including 
in Central Asia, was the organization of tax collection. The Arabs regarded tax collection 
as one of the most important foundations of the Caliphate. Along with the tax levied on 
non-Muslims (jizya), the treasury of the Caliphate also received huge profits from the 
plunder of territories. Later, in order to strengthen the material foundations of the 
caliphate, a system of capitation jizya was introduced, which caused an aggravation of 
the situation in the occupied territories and mass demonstrations of the population.[1] 
After the complete conquest of Maverannehr, popular demonstrations in the 
territories occupied by the Arabs became more frequent. The reason for such 
statements was the tightening of tax policy by the Arabs. For example, during the reign 
of Caliph Hisham (724-743), due to a shortage of funds in the state treasury, it was 
decided to levy an additional tax - jizya from everyone who converted to Islam, while 
many converted to Islam to exempt from such a tax. [3] 

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The tightening of taxes caused massive popular uprisings in 736-737. in 
Tokharistan and Sogd. In 738, Nasr ibn Sayyar was appointed governor of Khorasan 
and Maverannahr, who was forced to organize trips to Maverannahr three times to 
suppress popular uprisings. It was during this period that the Arabs became convinced 
that it was impossible to establish Islam by military means in this region. Therefore, 
the Arabs began to pursue a policy of reconciliation with the local population and 
clarification of the essence of Islam. All sources indicate that in the early period and in 
the first centuries of the spread of Islam, the spirit of tolerance was stronger and more 
pronounced than in the Mongolian and later periods. Tolerance and the desire for 
reconciliation made possible not only religious and philosophical-scholastic disputes, 
but also made it possible to establish a relationship of mutual assistance between the 
"People of the Book" and Muslims in the Islamic world. But all words and deeds, 
perceived as a threat to Islam, were suppressed by force.[5,147] 
Thus, the cause of the Arab victories in Khorasan and Maverannahr was the 
loyalty of the conquerors of their religion - Islam. In addition, as we have already seen 
above, the conquest of the Sasanian empire, including Khorasan and Maverannahr, 
became possible as a result of the political and social fragmentation of the country, the 
betrayal of local rulers, the weakness of the military power of this state, corruption, 
and a sharp social stratification of the lack of unity of the nation and peoples of the 
region lack of unifying religion, etc. 
In the framework of the above, we can conclude that the following factors became 
the reason for the spread of Islam among the population of the region:
-degradation of previous religious beliefs, sects and trends; 
- factors of a socio-economic nature; - the political factor; 
- lack of a unifying idea in the Sassanid state;
- exemption from tax obligations;
- disintegration of the state system of the Sassanids and a systemic crisis in the 
state; 
- aging of the nation and its traditional moral foundations;

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- caste system and the complete absence of socially just relations; 
- dysfunctional economic system;
- anti-human judicial and legislative system;
- full awareness of the Islamic doctrine, its fair nature and the promotion of the 
equality of all people before God; 
- attractiveness of the new religion and its world character, etc. 
In turn, the gradual adoption of Islam by the conquered peoples and ethnic groups 
of Khorasan and Maverannahr, who had a high ancient culture, entailed a sharp change 
in the historically formed cultural traditions. Islamization has greatly transformed and 
unified the way of life, the system of family and social relations, ethics, and law 
throughout the region. However, if in Egypt, Mesopotamia and North Africa this was 
accompanied by Arabization, in Khorasan and Maverannahr the spread of Islam did 
not lead to Arabization of public life. Nevertheless, Islam gradually supplanted ancient 
religious beliefs in the region - Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Manichaeism, as well as 
pre-Islamic rites, rituals, mythology, epics, written literature, visual arts and religious 
architecture.[3, 428-429] 
Common to all countries and peoples conquered by the Arabs was that everything 
that contradicted the tenets of Islam and did not fit into its strict prescriptions gradually 
receded into the background, or was completely forgotten. Subsequently, Islamic 
norms and traditions determined the further development of the culture of the Islamized 
peoples, including the ethnic groups and peoples of Khorasan and Maverannahr.