Samarkand iktisodiyot va servis instituti

Baholar natijasi varag’i
Shaxsiy baho, essay bahosi summasi (1ball) va guruh ishi summasiga (2ball)teng. Eng yuqori baho amaliyot mashg’ulotlarga 3 ball;
2,2 -3 ball – “a’lo”.
1,2- 2 ball – “yaxshi”.
0,5 – 1,1 ball – “qoniqarli”.
0,5 gacha – “yomon”.

Savollar raqami va guruhlar	To’g’ri baholar (1 ball)	Boshqalarga savollar (0,2 ball)	Qo’shimchalar (0,2 ball)	E’tiborlilik (sxemalar,jadval va boshqalar) (0,6 ball)	Jami ballar (2 ball)
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Ilova 3

Prehistoric period

The island was first inhabited by people who crossed over the land bridge from the European mainland. Human footprints have been found from over 800,000 years ago in Norfolk  and traces of early humans have been found (at Boxgrove Quarry, Sussex) from some 500,000 years ago and modern humans from about 30,000 years ago.
Until about 14,000 years ago, Great Britain was connected to Ireland, and as recently as 8,000 years ago it retained a land connection to the continent, with an area of mostly low marshland joining it to what are now Denmark and the Netherlands.^[33] In Cheddar Gorge, near Bristol, the remains of animal species native to mainland Europe such as antelopes, brown bears, and wild horses have been found alongside a human skeleton, 'Cheddar Man', dated to about 7150 BC. Thus, animals and humans must have moved between mainland Europe and Great Britain via a crossing. Great Britain became an island at the end of the last glacial period when sea levels rose due to the combination of melting glaciers and the subsequent isostatic rebound of the crust.
Great Britain's Iron Age inhabitants are known as Britons; they spoke Celtic languages.

Roman and medieval period

Prima Europe tabula. A copy of Ptolemy's 2nd century map of Roman Britain
The Romans conquered most of the island (up to Hadrian's Wall, in northern England) and this became the Ancient Roman province of Britannia. In the course of the 500 years after the Roman Empire fell, the Britons of the south and east of the island were assimilated or displaced by invading Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, often referred to collectively as Anglo-Saxons). At about the same time, Gaelic tribes from Ireland invaded the north-west, absorbing both the Picts and Britons of northern Britain, eventually forming the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century. The south-east of Scotland was colonised by the Angles and formed, until 1018, a part of the Kingdom of Northumbria. Ultimately, the population of south-east Britain came to be referred to as the English people, so-named after the Angles.
Germanic speakers referred to Britons as Welsh. This term came to be applied exclusively to the inhabitants of what is now Wales, but it also survives in names such as Wallace and in the second syllable of Cornwall. Cymry, a name the Britons used to describe themselves, is similarly restricted in modern Welsh to people from Wales, but also survives in English in the place name of Cumbria. The Britons living in the areas now known as Wales, Cumbria and Cornwall were not assimilated by the Germanic tribes, a fact reflected in the survival of Celtic languages in these areas into more recent times.^[35] At the time of the Germanic invasion of Southern Britain, many Britons emigrated to the area now known as Brittany, where Breton, a Celtic language closely related to Welsh and Cornish and descended from the language of the emigrants, is still spoken. In the 9th century, a series of Danish assaults on northern English kingdoms led to them coming under Danish control (an area known as the Danelaw). In the 10th century, however, all the English kingdoms were unified under one ruler as the kingdom of England when the last constituent kingdom, Northumbria, submitted to Edgar in 959. In 1066, England was conquered by the Normans, who introduced a Norman-speaking administration that was eventually assimilated. Wales came under Anglo-Norman control in 1282, and was officially annexed to England in the 16th century.

And now let us do tests

#If John were playing tonight, we … a better chance of winning.

- would have
- are would
- are have
- are will have

#We’ll just go to another restaurant if this one … fully occupied.

- is
- will
- will be
- has

#Had the guests come, I … the house.

- would have cleaned
- is clean
- am clean
- at clean

#If Rebecca … his phone number before, she would have called him.

- had learned
- is learned
- are learned
- is having learnt

#They … let you on the plane unless you have a valid passport.

- won't
- is had
- are have
- aren’t

#If I … a taxi, I would have been there in time.

- had taken
- am took
- are took
- am have taken

#It will save us time and money if we ... the hotel and flight together.

- book
- are booked
- is had booked
- are book

#I … more shopping in this store if things weren't so expensive here.

- would do
- am doing
- am did
- am do

#If I knew his address, I … to him.

- would write
- am wrote
- am write
- am writing

#I'm sure she … forgive you if you apologize.

- will
- is
- isn’t
- ought to
Lesson 12. CONSUMER CHOICE. HISTORY OF UZBEKISTAN.

Consumer behavior

In this module our objective is to explain the behavior of consumers in the market. The assumption is that consumers make rational decisions choosing those goods that allow them to maximize their satisfaction, or utility as economists call it. In other words, consumers have to allocate their limited incomes between various goods and services available in the market at various prices. There are two approaches to the study of a consumer behavior – the utility analysis known as the cardinalist approach or theory, and the indifference curve analysis known as the ordinalist approach.
1. The cardinalist approach. When you buy a good, it is because you want it. You want it because you expect to get satisfaction or some other sort of benefit from it. This applies to everything: chocolate bars, bus journeys, CDs, jeans, insurance. Economists use the term ‘utility’ to refer to the benefit we get from consumption. A question arises: how to measure ‘utility’.
In the 19th century economists (Alfred Marshall was among them) suggested a util as a unit measured in cardinal numbers. For example, a consumer may obtain 20 utils of utility from a dish of potatoes, but only 10 utils from a dish of rice. This was the idea of the cardinalist theory of demand.
However, utility is an abstract concept, thus it is a problem to compare subjective satisfaction enjoyed by one individual with that of another individual because there are different factors which influence an individual’s level of utility such as economic, social, and psychological factors.
However, there is a simple rule that applies to all people and all goods: As you consume more of a product, your desire for additional units of it will decline. The economists call this rule the principle of diminishing marginal utility: As more and more units of a good are consumed in a given time period, the extra utility from the consumption of additional units eventually falls. For example, when you drink tea in the morning, the utility from the first cup is very high. A second cup may also be very welcome, but its utility level is not as high, and the utility of a third cup is even less. We call the additional utility you get from consuming an extra unit of a product the marginal utility. In other words, marginal utility is the extra utility from the consumption of one more unit of a good, the consumption of all other goods remaining unchanged.
It is reasonable to generalize this consumer behavior: the more a consumer has of a good, the less utility he derives from the consumption of an additional unit. This rule says that the marginal utility will fall as we consume more of a product over a given period of time.
How can marginal utility be measured? One way is to measure marginal utility in money terms: the amount of money that a person would be prepared to pay for one more unit of a product. Let us take an example. When you go to have a cup of coffee at the café downstairs, you may also wish to buy a cake that costs 20 rubles or so. If you were prepared to pay 20 rubles for an extra cake in our café, then we would say that your marginal utility from consuming this extra cake is 20 rubles. As long as you are prepared to pay more for the same as the actual price, you will buy an additional cake. If you are not prepared to pay, you will not.