The Novel and the Nation
71
pal generators o f this identity, even though Austen’s marriage plots, it can
be argued, helped shape a nation in showing that there is a large space in
southern England where heroines can be at home. In a similar vein Copal
Balakrishnan argues in “The National Imagination” that “the cultural af
finities shaped by print-capitalism do not themselves seem sufficiently res
onant to generate the colossal sacrifices that modern peoples are at times
willing to make for their n a t i o n . I t is in wartime and in relation to en
emies that the culture o f sacrifice takes over and feeds national feeling. The
contribution o f the plots and themes o f novels is likely to be considerably
smaller, but their form may be the condition o f possibility o f the imagined
communities that are energized by discourses o f war.
In brief, if we try to argue that the novel, through its representations
of nationhood, made the nation, we are on shaky ground, but if we argue
that the novel was a condition o f possibility for imagining something like
a nation, for imagining a community that could be opposed to another,
as friend to foe, and thus a condition o f possibility o f a community orga
nized around a political distinction between friend and enemy, the case is
markedly stronger. We have considerable warrant for maintaining the nov
el’s importance in the face o f the historian’s insistence on socioeconomic
and political factors, from markets to wars. Note that the work o f novels
envisioned here is not that o f propagandistically opposing the wicked and
decadent French to the stalwart Britons (though some novels do this). On
the contrary, the novel can be a condition o f possibility o f imagining com
munities that may become nations because it addresses readers in a dis
tinctively open way, offering the possibility o f adhering to a community,
as an insider, without laying down particular criteria that have to be met.
If a national community is to come into being, there must be the possibil
ity for large numbers o f people to come to feel a part o f it, and in offer
ing the insider’s view to those who might have been deemed outsiders, the
novel creates that possibility. When José Rizal’s N oli me tangere addresses
the reader, “O you who read me, be you friend or enemy,” the distinction
between friend and enemy, on which the political events that make the na
tion will come to depend, is exposed as not external to the novel but rather
as a possibility that arises within it. The community o f readers that aris-
42.
Gopal Balakrishnan, “The National Imagination,” in Mapping the Na
tion, ed. Gopal Balakrishnan (London: Verso, 1996), 198.
72
T H E O R Y
es from a novel is one in which readers may be both friend and enemy, at
once insider and outsider. I f politics depends on the distinction between
friend and enemy, deciding who is which or ranging oneself on one side or
the other, the novel provides a space within which the distinction can arise,
prior to those decisions.
This is a complex matter because there are radically different ways in
which readers o f the novel may be both insiders and outsiders. In colonies
or former colonies in particular, readers’ ideas o f a national identity may
arise from a vision from outside, when they see how they are placed on the
map. In the case o f Rizal’s N oli me tangere the readers as insiders/outsid-
ers might be European-educated Filipinos who observe the inhabitants o f
the colony through the book’s anthropological gaze and who thus come to
see themselves as Filipinos through this vision. The insider/outsider might
also be the nineteenth-century Spaniard or the twentieth-century cosmo
politan reader who comes to share the narrative’s commitment to a Filipi
no community. Anderson calls this double or comparative vision, with its
oscillation between inside and outside, “the spectre o f comparisons,” and
it is a spectre that haunts the novel, that makes it possible.
Anderson’s work can lead us to realize that what is distinctive about
the novel, about its formal adumbration o f the space o f a community, is its
open invitation to readers o f different conditions to become insiders, even
while the novel raises as a possibility the distinction between insider and
outsider, friend and foe, that becomes the basis o f political developments.
This is what gives the novel so potent a role as condition o f possibility for
the nation; the form o f the novel as condition o f possibility for imagining
the nation, not the content o f novels as representations o f the nation.
43.
I am grateful to Pheng Cheah for incisive comments on a draft of this
chapter and especially on the point developed here.
Resisting Theory
The resistance to theory is varied and endemic. It may emanate from
those who believe that theory in the form o f general propositions and prin
ciples “gets in the way” o f their encounter with works o f art or from those
who develop theoretical arguments not just against particular theoretical
orientations but against theory in general. In a celebrated essay, “The Resis
tance to Theory,” which also provides the title for his collection o f essays on
theory and theorists, Paul de Man explores some forms o f resistance to the
ory, particularly that resistance emanating from traditional literary studies,
but for him the only intellectually challenging form o f resistance to theory
is that summed up in his closing apothegm: “Nothing can overcome the
resistance to theory since theory is itself this resistance.” ^ Before discussing
aspects o f de Man’s work in the light o f this paradox— theory as the resis
tance to theory— one should consider some forms o f what de Man calls
“the shared resistance to theory” o f extremely diverse trends in criticism.
Opposition to theory may be widely attractive, but books and ar
ticles that oppose it by criticizing its difficulty, its obscurity, and its many
nefarious effects, such as its politicizing o f teaching and research or its al
leged critique o f literary values, have not fared very well, perhaps because
all such approaches concede the power o f theory as they complain about
I.
Paul de Man, The Resistance to Theory (Minneapolis: University of Min
nesota Press, 1986), 19; hereafter abbreviated R T and cited parenthetically in the
text.
74
T H E O R Y
it,
SO
that theorists have often felt no need to respond but let these at
tacks peter out in the void. Steven Knapp and Walter Benn Michaels, in
their attack on theory, had the clever and perverse idea o f taking the oppo
site tack, declaring that theory has no consequences, is wholly otiose, and
should thus be abandoned. Avoiding the fate o f previous attacks, they at
tracted a good deal o f attention with their article “Against Theory” and the
sequel, “Against Theory 2,” which followed when, like Hollywood produc
ers, they saw that they could profit from a box-office hit. Starting with a
strangely narrow definition o f theory, as a discourse that attempts to con
trol interpretive practice by constructing a general account o f interpreta
tion, Michaels and Knapp claim that theory in this sense takes the form o f
epistemological arguments about the relationship between authorial inten
tion and textual meaning.^ Such arguments are misguided or incoherent or
simply wrong, they maintain, for they fail to see or recognize or “realize”
(a favorite word here), “that the meaning o f a text is simply identical to the
author’s intended meaning.”^ Michaels and Knapp insist that they are not
taking a particular position in the argument about the relation o f inten
tion to meaning: they are simply claiming that intention and meaning are
by definition the same. To construe something as language rather than as
meaningless marks is to take it as having been produced by someone, and
to inquire about its meaning is simply to ask what its author meant. Un
derstandably, it has seemed to both their supporters and their critics that
by asserting that the meaning o f a text is what its author meant by it and
that it is impossible for a text to mean more than what its author meant,
they are championing the view that only evidence about the author’s in
tention is relevant to the determination o f the text’s meaning. They insist,
2. Most discussions which count as theory do not offer such arguments.
Many are not about interpretation at all: Michel Foucault does not tell us how to
interpret texts but offers surprising histories that critics use to generate new ideas
about the implications of texts they study. The work of Benedict Anderson, to re
turn to the discussion of chapter 2, leads us to think about novels in relation to the
projects of nation building and influences interpretation in that way, but it offers
no stipulations to control interpretive practice.
3. Steven Knapp and Walter Benn Michaels, “Against Theory,” Critical In
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