March 9, 2011
15:1
9in x 6in
Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
b1073-ch02
54
Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
by concept and age level. This ensured the material’s accessibility
within the framework of a uniform mandatory elementary education.
Uniform requirements were imposed on all students across the country.
This program, with minor adjustments, operated for nearly 40 years
11
(Pchelko, 1977). At this time, the objective of elementary education
in arithmetic was defined as the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and
experiences necessary for pursuing further school education.
The author of the first “stable” textbooks in arithmetic in the USSR
was N. S. Popova (1885–1972). Here are the topics covered in that
text under the heading “The first 100”:
Addition and subtraction. Measurement of straight lines and scale
drawing. Addition and subtraction of nominative numbers. Com-
parison by subtracting. Multiplying and dividing by 5, 3, 4, 6, 8,
9, 7. Basic diagrams. Problems with time. Half, quarter, eighth. So
many times greater. Multiplication and division by single-digit or two-
digit numbers without tables. Comparison by dividing. Division with
remainder. Problems and exercises using all operations with numbers
under 100. (Popova, 1933)
At this time, calculations were carried out without any sort of
theoretical background: students performed simple operations by mim-
icking an example, while expressions containing multiple operations
followed the order of operations (taking parentheses into account).
The theory behind the calculations remained “unspoken, not set out
in precise language” (Kavun and Popova, 1934, p. 10). Only in
1960 were certain elements of theory introduced at the fourth-grade
level.
The predominant teaching method included the teacher’s explain-
ing new material, solving problems that targeted newly acquired
skills, independent student work, and experimental–practical exercises.
Students falling behind in the class were given special attention.
Teachers began introducing differentiated assignments, visual aids, and
didactic games. For example, half of the teaching materials for the
11
These adjustments included: increasing the elements of polytechnic training and its
practical orientation; reducing somewhat the scope of the program to accommodate
younger students entering the first grade at age seven.
March 9, 2011
15:1
9in x 6in
Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
b1073-ch02
The History and the Present State
55
fourth grade (Popova, 1961) were made up of board games: “Lotto
with Pictures”, “Where Is My Place?”, “Molchanka” [“Stay Silent!”],
etc. The game “Circular Exercises” (one student solves an exercise, but
instead of giving the answer outright he or she selects another exercise
that begins with the answer to the first one) was given in eight different
versions (one of which is as follows: 9
− 4, 5 + 5, 10 − 7, 3 + 5, 8 − 6,
2
+ 7).
Eventually, the view of the elementary school as a place for
developing skills only lost its currency. In the 1960s, the Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR had carried out a major study
which revealed significant cognitive abilities in children. A new program
of study for grades 1–3 was developed, based on the findings of
the Institute for General and Polytechnic Education, the Institute of
Psychology, and the Herzen Leningrad Pedagogical Institute under
the direction of N. A. Menchinskaya, M. I. Moro (Menchinskaya and
Moro, 1965), M. A. Bantova, A. S. Pchelko, and A. M. Pyshkalo. After
a lengthy trial period across hundreds of schools, it was approved and
implemented.
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