Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
In this context, the decision to include problems on probability
in experimental final examinations for schools with advanced courses
of study in mathematics, made in the 1990s by the St. Petersburg
examination board chaired by A. P. Karp (see Karp, 1997), seems
almost heroic. However, even these problems were inevitably formal
and, at the same time, relatively basic from a theoretical probabilistic
perspective. They required little more than “plugging” data into a
formula, which seems to run counter to the standards of advanced
courses and suggests that the compilers of the exam were unsure of
students’ abilities to confront the probability in any real depth. Here
is a sample problem from those examinations:
A complex number
z is chosen at random, such that |z| = 1. What is
the probability that
|z − 1| ≤ 1? (Karp, 2000, p. 162)
Even earlier, a variety of researchers and instructors, concerned with
promoting statistical thinking in secondary school students, had devel-
oped teaching materials and conducted experiments with extracurric-
ular or elective courses in statistics (Avdeeva, 1970; Ochilova, 1975).
However, the limitations of such a platform and the voluntary nature of
these courses ran counter to the very objectives set out by the authors:
to promote in all students the basic principles of statistical thinking,
indispensable in a variety of fields outside the mathematics class.
Subsequent attempts to integrate stochastics into the curriculum
were largely based on the work of V. V. Firsov (1970, 1974), who
demonstrated that development of statistical thinking and probabil-
ity intuition demands a practically oriented course. Firsov asserted
that the study of probability should include such steps of applied
problem-solving as formalization and interpretation. Nevertheless,
despite numerous convincing arguments and reasoned conclusions,
the problem of bringing probability into the classroom could not
be solved, as Firsov himself acknowledged, without extensive on-the-
ground testing of methodological ideas and techniques.
In all fairness, it must be acknowledged that although Russia had
until recently remained virtually the only nation in the developed world
where probability and statistics were omitted from the secondary school
curriculum, the country’s scholars, methodologists, and teachers
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continued all along to test a variety of approaches to teaching the
foundations of these sciences. A series of experiments in adapting and
advancing the methodology of teaching probability and mathematical
statistics were staged in the 1970s and 1980s in the USSR.
An interesting interdisciplinary experiment was conducted about
this time by K. N. Kuryndina (1980): according to Kuryndina’s
schema, several topics in probability and statistics were covered in
mathematics courses, while others were covered in geography, elective
courses or mathematical circles (clubs). This experiment was further
developed by V. D. Seliutin (1983, 1985), in the city of Orel: here,
too, a comprehensive course of study in stochastics was divided among
a variety of mathematics courses, optional courses, and circles. These
experiments demonstrated the accessibility of the material — when
oriented practically, its powers of promoting statistical thinking, as well
as the students’ interest in a practically oriented course in stochastics.
Seliutin’s approach is distinguished by its emphasis on statistics and
decision-making in real-life situations. This localized experiment also
showed that topics in probability are accessible — and useful — to
students as early as in middle school.
This conclusion was supported by L. O. Bychkova (1991), who
demonstrated that teaching probability and statistics in the fifth and
sixth grades was both feasible — from a psychological-pedagogic
perspective — and productive. Bychkova’s research focused primarily
on the development of statistical thinking. In the fifth grade, the
study of probability took up 10 hours, of which half was spent on
combinatorics and the other half on statistical data (data grouping,
arithmetical mean, bar charts). In the sixth grade, 15 hours were
spent on probability, of which 8 were taken up with the study of
the theory of probability proper (experiments with random outcomes,
random events, certain and impossible events, classical definition
of probability of a random event, solving problems on probability,
frequency and probability), while the other 7 went to basic statistical
analysis (statistical data, mode and range of sample, statistical analysis).
To test the development of statistical thinking among students,
Seliutin and Bychkova made use of qualitative problems proposed
by V. V. Firsov (1974) and analogous problems geared to other age
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
groups. These problems were given to students who had covered the
elements of probability theory and statistics, as well as to students
who had not covered these topics. This experiment confirmed the
hypothesis that the study of probability as a subset of pure mathematics
based on the classical definition of probability has no significant effect
on the development of statistical thinking among students and is
perceived by the students as a topic in pure mathematics without
practical application.
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