Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
formulate the main ideas and applications of probability theory at a
level accessible to secondary school students. N. Ya. Vilenkin likewise
published several texts in combinatorial analysis (e.g. 1969), offering
in-depth analysis of an assortment of concrete problems varying in
difficulty. At the same time, a number of scholars published works
aimed at formulating the methodology for teaching the new course.
Some of the methodologists called for an independent course dedicated
strictly to the study of the principles of probability theory (e.g.
Gaisinskaya, 1972; Potapov, 1969; Veliev, 1972), while others argued
for a combined combinatorics–probability curriculum (Dograshvili,
1976; Kabekhova, 1971; Samigulina, 1969).
The majority of proposals leaned heavily toward probability, with
very limited space given to the elements of statistics. At the same
time, the initiative for integrating probability theory and statistics into
the secondary school curriculum was actively promoted not only by
scholars and teachers of mathematics but also by physicists, chemists,
and biologists. The need for a preparatory course in probability and
statistics in the secondary school was also discussed at the college
level. In a discussion on “equally likely events,” E. S. Venttsel, author
of one of the most popular college textbooks on probability theory,
spoke about “events, not reducible to a system of chance occurrences,”
stressing that “all of these techniques are grounded in experiment, and
in order to master them one must first learn about frequency of event
and grasp the organic connection between probability and frequency”
(multiple editions, e.g. 1998, p. 9). The author noted that college
students have a difficult time absorbing the principles of probability
and statistics without preparatory work at the secondary school level.
Despite all this, a course in probability was not included in the final-
ized version of the secondary school curriculum. A. N. Kolmogorov
(1968), the founding father of Russian probability and mathematical
statistics, expressed his regret in the following words: “Unfortunately,
no positive solution could be found to the problem of integrating
elements of probability theory into the secondary school curriculum”
(p. 22). Pilot programs had shown overwhelmingly that teachers
of mathematics and the school system as a whole were unprepared
to take on the new and unfamiliar subject. It should be noted,
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however, that arguments of this sort are always valid, and always
stand in the way of genuine reform. At the same time, it must be
acknowledged that the failure of this particular reform was due in large
part to the emphasis by pilot programs on a theory-heavy approach
to probability, i.e. the classical a priori approach to the notion of
probability of a random event, at the expense of practical application
and interdisciplinary implications. As a result, probability theory was
almost completely cut off from mathematical statistics, the latter being
entirely omitted from the course. In the experimental textbook for
the ninth grade edited by Kolmogorov, the section on probability
theory followed directly after — and elaborated upon — the section
on combinatorics. Consequently, the two sections made up a peculiar
fragment, disconnected from other topics in the course and from
other subjects in the curriculum, thus failing to attract the interest
of practically minded 15- and 16-year-old students and their teachers.
Regrettably, the attenuated approach of Kolmogorov’s textbook had
little in common with the methodologies elaborated by the master
pedagogue in his writings, and did much to discredit the very idea of
integrating probability into secondary school curricula.
As a result, combinatorics and elements of probability theory
were cast out to the educational periphery, i.e. high school electives
or courses in schools that specialized in mathematics, where these
subjects were taught at the very end of the final year. Here, too,
they suffered from the theory-heavy approach: rather than seeking
a deep and intricate understanding of the probability of a random
event or honing their skills in mathematical modeling, students in
specialized physics and mathematics schools were asked to solve
complex probability problems by virtue of increasingly complicated
combinatorial analysis, a rapid and formal shift toward conditional
probability, and Bernoulli’s formula. Moreover, the foundations of
probability were taught with no reference to mathematical statistics.
Finally, the isolated and strictly theoretical fragment that comprised the
elements of probability theory never became a full-fledged component
of the curriculum, even in specialized schools, as evidenced by a nearly
total absence of probability-related problems on final examinations in
classes with an advanced course of study in mathematics.
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