In passive sentences, you use
by
before the person or
thing that causes the action (the agent).
J.
K. Rowling
wrote
the Harry Potter books.
(active)
The Harry Potter books
were written
by
J.K. Rowling.
(passive)
If you do not know who the agent is, or it is clear who it is,
you don't need to use
by.
His wallet
was stolen
(by someone) while he was on
holiday.
Letters
are delivered
(by the postman) every morning.
Speculating ancl making predictions
Using
will
and going to to make predictions
When you make predictions about the future that are based
on general beliefs, opinions or attitudes, you use
will.
The weather tomorrow
will
be warm and sunny.
I'm sure you'll enjoy your visit to my city.
When you use facts or events in the present situation as
evidence for a prediction, you use
be+ going to.
It's going
to
rain. (I can
see
black clouds.)
I'm going to
be late for the meeting. (I woke up too late.)
Talking about possibility
(see pages 13 and 56)
When you are not completely sure about something, you
can use the modal verbs
must, might, may or could.
Mm
When you are fairly sure that something is true, you use
must.
This
must
be a new film; I haven't seen it before.
�
When you are fairly $Ure that something is not true, you
use
can't or cannot.
It
can't
be the right size; it's too small.
Could. may
and
might
When you are not sure whether something is true or not,
you use
could, may or might.
The ban on smoking
might
upset people.
The new strategy
might
not work.
The new drugs
could
help to improve people's health.
The police
may
not be able to find the thief.
must be
sure that something is true
can't be
sure that something is not true
could be/might be not sure that something is true
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Grammar guide
Taldng about cause and effect (lee page 103)
Linking words to descr
i
be causes and effects
You can use
so, therefore, as a result, consequently,
to link causes and effects.
cause �
effect
There are more doctors
so
people are living longer.
There are more doctors and people are living longer
as
a
result.
Therefore, as a result, consequently
are used to
connect sentences.
Exercise keeps people healthy.
Therefore
,
people who
exercise regularly live longer.
It poured with rain.
As
a
result,
the game was cancelled.
I didn't study hard enough.
Consequently,
I failed my exam.
You can use
because, as, since, as a result of, due to
to link effects to causes.
effect � cause
People are living longer
because
there are more doctors.
People are living longer
as
there are more doctors.
People are living longer
since
there are more doctors.
People are living longer
due to
an increase in doctors.
People are living longer
as a result of
more doctors.
Remember!
Notice that
as a result of
and
due to
are followed by
a noun phrase.
Zero conditional for facts
You use the zero conditional when you talk about
something that is always true.
If
+ present simple + present simple
If
you
heat
water, it
boils.
present simple +
if
+ present simple
You
get
fat
if
you
eat
too much chocolate.
First conditional for possibility
You use the first conditional to talk about things that can
happen in the future.
II
Present simple
If
you
take
a map,
If
you
work
hard,
If
the weather Is fine
Will
you
won't
get
lost.
you'll pass
:
your exams.
I'll walk.
You can also put the part of the sentence with
if
second.
You won't get lost
if
you take a map.
Remember!
Notice that after
if
you use the present simple, not
will.
If you
remember
this, you'll
do
well!
Sometimes, we use the imperative or other modal verbs
instead of
will.
If you aren't sure what to do,
ask
your teacher.
If people exercise every day, they
may
live longer.
If it rains, I
might
not go.
Second conditional for unlikely situations
The second conditional is used to talk about things that
are unlikely to happen or things that are hypothetical.
If I had the money, I would buy
a
car.
What would you do if you won
a
million dollars?
There are two parts to the second conditional: one part
contains the
past simple
(If I
had
the money)
and the
second part contains
would (I would
buy
a
car).
if
+
past simple
+
would
If all illnesses
were
cured, everybody
would
be happy.
If he
worked
harder,
he'd pass his exams.
If there
were
no police,
there
would
be more crime.
Remember!
You do not normally use
would
in both parts of the
sentence.
i'f Bii illflesses houki be cured, e�eryeod; hOu,'d be
ft8/3f3Y:
If all illnesses were cured, everybody would be happy.
You can also use
could
or
might
instead of
would
if you
are not certain about the result.
If people stopped smoking, they
could
save money.
If children had more exercise, they
might
be fitter.
Asking for and giving advice
Should
and
ought
to
(see pages 99 and 110)
You use
should
and
ought to
when you give advice or
ask for advice.
People in Europe
should
eat less junk food.
You
shouldn't
work
so
hard. You
ought to
relax a bit more.
I've lost my passport. What
should
I do?
Had td) better
You can also use
had better
for giving advice.
You'd better
get more petrol. It's very low.
Remember!
In negative sentences you say
had ('d) better not.
We're having a big meal later
so
you'd better
not
eat too much now.
Talking about feelings
-ing
and -ed adjectives
Many adjectives are formed from verbs by adding
-ing
or
-ed.
Many
-ing
adjectives describe the effect that something
has on your feelings, or on the feelings of people in
general.
Last year, there was
a
surprising
number of accidents.
(= The number surprises you.)
Many
-ed
adjectives describe people's feelings. They have
a passive meaning.
She was genuinely
surprised
at what happened to her
pet(=
She feels surprise because of what happened.)
amazing
amazed
boring
bored
exciting
excited
surprising
surprised
terrifying
terrified
tiring
tired
worrying
worried
frightening
frightened
interesting
interested
shocking
shocked
embarrassing
embarrassed
disappointing
disappointed
confusing
confused
annoying
annoyed
pleasing
pleased
Grammar guide
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