Pragmatics, intention, and implication

[14] Modality.
T he very syntax of a language itself has syntactic forms designed to 
express the speaker’s attitude towards what he or she is saying. These are 
m o d a l it y
 
markers. T he examples that spring to mind are the 
m o d a l
AUXILIARIES 
like 
ca n , m ay, m ig h t, s h o u ld , c o u ld , w ill, w o u ld ,
 
and 
m ust. 
Introductory adverbs like 
p ro b a b ly , s u rp ris in g ly , d o u b tfu lly ,
 
and phrasal 
adverbs like 
it is certa in th at
 
and 
it is s u p p o s e d that
 
all fill this function.
[15] M itigating.
MITIGATORS 
are speech forms which background their messages, 
lessening the possibility of overt confrontation. They may be used to 
deny what one feels. These are directly involved in what is called 
s a v in g  
fa c e
 
(Goffman 1955), and are important determiners of how messages are 
given. We have already seen these in the guise of commands or questions 
that are couched in apparently ordinary statements. Language abounds 
with mitigators, such as
17A. You’ll never believe this, b u t . . .
17B. I know I ’m no expert, b u t . . .
17C. And I haven’t got into that but—I don’t know—I —I ju st—like,
you have your set way of doing things and you’re in con trol. . .
This last, 17C, comes from a conversation between a female schizo­
phrenic and a medical student (Chaika 1981, 1983a). T he patient is 
speaking, trying to indicate disagreement with the medical student. 
Because social and professional power clearly reside in him, she has to 
mitigate her expressions of doubt (Chapter 11).
Robin Lakoff (1975) documents such excessive mitigating as being 
typical of women, showing that they are actually inferior to men in social

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status even under the best of circumstances.11 O’Barr (1982) amends this 
to include males in an inferior position as well, a discovery he made 
while investigating weak versus powerful language amongst witnesses in 
court trials.
Fowler (1985, p. 73) includes mitigators in the category of modality, a 
sound practice since they can often be used interchangeably, so that the 
following seem to be equivalent for many contexts