Pernilla Hallonsten Halling

The root and lexeme levels

In chapter 6, the analysis of encoding was performed by examining individual roots and
lexemes in attr, pred, and adv.² On the root level, a great majority of languages
(50/60) show an overlap of all three functions. In over a third of the languages (23/60), a root overlap of attr and pred is attested, and only five languages have a root level overlap of pred and adv. These results illustrate that it is very common for languages to have some encoding that is related in the three functions in focus. It is further more

common for attr and
pred
to have related encoding, than it is for
pred
and adv,

although the latter pattern is also attested.
At the lexeme level, any overlap presupposes at least the same overlap at the root

level. For instance, a lexeme overlap of attr and
pred
presupposes that the same

root is also attested in these two functions. The results of examining encoding overlaps on the lexeme level showed that almost two thirds of the sample languages have attr and pred encoded identically (37/60). In this overlap, three different types of encoding were attested: adjectives, adjectives verging on nouns, and stative verbs. These results strengthen the view that adjectives are often not just modifiers in referring expressions, but are also commonly used in predication. Whether attested as a class of adjectives, as items that cannot really be distinguished from nouns, or as stative verbs, it is common
¹ This is the simplest version of the hierarchy – more elaborated versions can be found in, e.g., Hengeveld (2013: 36–37).
² The word form level was also discussed and exemplified, but did not prove to apply to many languages in the sample.

for attr and
pred
to be encoded as the same lexeme. Property modification within

referring expressions and property predication are conceptually close, and may thus be lexicalized together.
The second most common overlap on the lexeme level covers all three functions, attested in over half of the sample languages (33/60). For the simple property words that are found in a third of the languages (20/60), the term general modifier was proposed. General modifiers are items that cover the functions of adjectives and adverbs, and that tend

to be used in
pred
as well. In some languages, general modifiers constitute the only

class of property lexemes used as modifiers, whereas in other languages, they are attested alongside classes of adjectives and/or adverbs. As a label, general modifier is needed in order to treat this kind of lexemes as different from adjectives and/or adverbs, but at the same time, as functionally on a par with them.

The overlap of
pred
and adv on the lexeme level was attested in only six sample

languages. This lexeme overlap nonetheless shows that property words that are predicated (pred) and property words that are modifiers within predicating expressions (adv) can be lexicalized together. In other words, property predication does not necessarily belong to the domain of adjectives. This is particularly interesting since it is often argued that adjectives have two defining functions: attributive and predicative (e.g. Givón 2001: 84). Evidently, adverbs may in some cases also be used as predicates themselves, without any connection to adjectives.
The root level analysis illustrates that the encoding of attr, pred, and adv is com- monly related, regardless of what other encoding may also be attested in the three func- tions. The lexeme level analysis strengthens the view of adjectives as commonly used in attr and pred. It also calls for the term general modifier for the lexeme class that encompasses all three functions. Finally, it illustrates the fact that in certain languages,

adverbs can be used in
pred
as well as adv. But the fact remains that adverbs are

used in constructions that are often more complex than constructions where adjectives are used. This is why a more complex level of analysis is also needed.