Pernilla Hallonsten Halling

Implicational universals

Simple lexemes that denote properties and that are used as modifiers within predicating expressions constitute a coherent cross-linguistic class. This class is labeled adverb, and constitutes a typological part of speech, as established in chapter 9. Since many property words in this function tend to shift meaning to other characteristics of events, there is good reason to extend the notion of the adverb class to items that do not denote properties, with a quite natural heterogeneity as a result. As a typological part of speech, adverbs fill a subregion of modification which is otherwise left unexplained. Potentially, intensifiers as modifiers of modifiers fit here, too. Alternatively, general modifiers may fill the entire region of modification, or share it with adjectives and/or adverbs, as attested in a number of languages. Without adverbs and general modifiers as potential classes within the function of modification, adjectives appear as the only or primary modifier class, resulting in a skewed picture of modification.
The identification of semantic types of adverbs and general modifiers, which is one of the main findings of this thesis, motivate strong implicational universal tendencies. I propose two such implicational universals. The first one concerns speed as a core semantic type for adverbs (where adverbs refer to simple lexemes that denote properties and occur as modifiers within predicating expressions).

(10.2) If a language has adverbs, then the semantic type speed will occur among them.

The great majority of simple adverbs in the sample languages have speed attested among them. There is a small number of exceptions, but these do not affect the typological tendency. Thus, it is the general tendency that is captured.

The second implicational universal concerns value and general modifiers (defined as simple lexemes that denote properties and that occur as modifiers within referring ex- pressions as well as within predicating expressions).
(10.3) If a language has general modifiers, then the semantic type value will occur among them.
The tendency in (10.3) holds both for languages with general modifiers as the only class with a modifying function, and for languages that have a smaller class of general modifiers besides having adjectives and/or adverbs.
Even though the identity of adverbs as a part of speech can be established, adverbs differ from other categories in a number of ways. They often constitute a small class within a specific language, and they are not as common across languages as adjectives are. Moreover, adverbs are seldom inflected. But these peculiarities can be attributed to the fact that events, which prototypically involve actions used as predicates, are difficult to modify. In comparison, objects and participants are very easy to modify. Few property concepts pertain to events specifically, whereas many property words apply to objects and participants. As discussed in chapter 9, modification within predicating expressions is secondary in a double sense as compared to modification within referring expressions. The small number of property concepts that pertain to events and the secondary nature of modification within predicating expressions characterize the difficult matter of using prop- erty concepts as modifiers within predicating expressions, yielding few property-denoting

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   Prospects for future research
   

adverbs. Events are complex, in that they include a varying number of participants and unfold over time. Modifiers that add meaning to events will inherit part of this complex- ity. In the present study, this complexity is manifested by the overlaps of pred and adv found at the construction level. The whole event in which the adverb occurs must be analyzed for a full understanding of the function of this part of speech.

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