in their response to their critics, that to identify meaning with intention
is not to say anything at all about how to find out the meaning o f a text,
ciating, by seeking to imagine God’s will), what you are doing (according
to their definition) is construing what its author meant. “Nothing in the
us anything at all about what should count as evidence for determining
dence is relevant to the determination o f the meaning o f a work, then, is
not affected at all by their argument.
o f any particular intention? If their claim about meaning and intention
tells us nothing about this, it might seem that theory still has a good deal
o f work to do, even if we need to call the discourses doing such work by
ciples o f interpretation has sought to champion or to adjudicate among
torical practices and discourses, the lives and declarations of authors, pos
is, it is by definition the same thing as the author’s intention, so there is no
if we were to accept their equation and henceforth substitute the phrase
need reflection on the relations between this entity (however named) and
such things as the kinds o f information available to us about authors, his
genres, the work o f reading, the structures o f the unconscious, and the his
tory o f reception— in short, some theory.
theory is itself theoretical and, far from stopping theory, generates more
7
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T H E O R Y
theoretical writing. I would emphasize a difFerent point. There is consid
erable evidence that Knapp and Michaels themselves do not take meaning
and intention to be identical, for one o f the moves they characteristically
make is to accuse their opponents (who include just about everybody) of
failing to understand their own arguments— that is, failing to understand
the meaning o f their own texts. E. D. Hirsch, they write, has “failed to un
derstand the force o f his own formulation.” ^ He thinks his formulation
means one thing, but he has failed to understand implications inherent to
it— a perfectly plausible situation but one that is hard to explain if one ac
cepts the impossibility o f a text meaning something other than what the
author intended.
The claim that others fail to understand their own arguments be
comes central to Walter Benn Michaels’s later book. The Shape o f the Signi
fier, which claims that anyone who does not recognize that the meaning of
a text is just what the author meant by it is abandoning the possibility o f
there being anything for critics to be right or wrong about and thus implic
itly embracing the conclusion that it is the identity or subject position of
the reader that is crucial: “if you don’t think o f texts as meaning what their
authors intended, you will end up required to think o f them as meaning
what they mean to you, which is to say as not really meaning at all but just
as producing some effect on their readers.”^
Knapp and Michaels write in the conclusion o f “Against Theory 2” :
“We have argued that conventions play no role in determining meaning.
We have denied that they can give a text an autonomous identity that will
allow it to mean more than its author intends.”^ But in their disagree
ments with other theorists they seek to show that others’ arguments mean
more or something other than their authors claim they mean. In effect,
they seek to identify what they take to be autonomous structures o f mean
ing that function, whether or not the theorist in question intended them.
Michaels’s project in The Shape o f the Signifier consists o f arguing that all
the theorists who reject his view that the meaning o f a text is just what the
author intended, in fact end up meaning something quite different from
5. Knapp and Michaels, “Against Theory,” 725.
6. Walter Benn Michaels, The Shape o f the Signifier (Princeton, NJ: Princ
eton University Press, 2004), 73—74.
7. Knapp and Michaels, “Against Theory 2,” 68.
what they intended. O f Derrida, he writes, for instance, “What’s really as
serted by the claim that there is nothing outside the text is that there is no
such thing as a text.”® This is apparently not a claim about what Derrida’s
assertion means to me or what effect it produces on readers but about what
it means according to a principle or logic that Derrida himself has failed
to grasp. Indeed, the appeal o f The Shape ofithe Signifier lies in its bold at
tempt to demonstrate that by the logic Michaels seeks to identify, the texts
o f theorists end up meaning something radically different from— indeed
often diametrically opposed to— ^what they intended and from what oth
ers have taken these texts to mean. Such thinkers as de Man and Derrida,
who have no interest in identity politics, are said to end up in fact support
ing it because their claims about language mean something quite different
from what they intend.
It would be possible for Michaels and ICnapp to reply that they are
distinguishing between the meaning o f a text and its force or significance,
but this opens precisely the sort o f gap they have been at pains to deny—
between what an author intends and what the text can be claimed to mean
(now called “force” or “significance”). And in any event, they are usually
not content to distinguish meaning from force when criticizing others.
Michaels speaks o f “what is really asserted” by Derrida’s claim, not what
force or effect it has for people occupying certain subject positions. Knapp
and Michaels themselves cannot, it seems, adhere to the equation o f mean
ing and intention by which they seek to dismiss a certain sort o f theory.
Unintended meaning is such a crucial object o f critical investigation and
theoretical debate that they cannot do without it. One could argue that
even though we cannot determine what an author intended, the conduct
o f analysis requires an operation o f positing and opposing meaning that an
author controls to meaning that he or she does not control. Knapp’s and
Michael’s practice bears this out, against the claims o f their theory.
The other main move in their antitheory theory (and this is charac
teristic o f the work o f Stanley Fish as well) is to seek to shift attention from
theory to beliefs, for if theory vanishes, as they say it should, what takes
its place are beliefs. We have beliefs that determine what is relevant, what
to look for, how to proceed. They want to shift the focus from theories to
beliefs, I would argue, because it is easier to maintain that beliefs do not
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