28
T H E O R Y
We dance round in a ring and suppose,
But the Secret sits in the middle and knows.^
The interpretive problem, “what is the poet saying or doing here?” be
comes a source o f distinctively literary interest, one might say, when it is
transformed into a question about the relation between what the speaker
or the poem is doing and what the agents within the poem, “we” and “the
Secret,” are doing. The poem contrasts our dancing and supposing with
the Secret’s sitting and knowing. We can ask what attitude the poem takes
to the contrasted actions or modes o f being. Is the poem a sardonic com
ment on the futility of human activity, or can we contrast the dancing of
communal supposing to the dour and immobile knowing? But to address
the question o f the poem’s take on these oppositions, one needs to ask
whether the poem itself is engaged in dancing and supposing or in sitting
and knowing. Is the poem itself in the mode o f supposing or knowing?
The answer is somewhat complicated. The poem certainly sounds
knowing, but as a verbal construction, can it be other than an act o f human
supposing? And if we ask about the status o f knowing in the poem, what
we can discover is that the subject supposed to know, the Secret, is pro
duced by a rhetorical operation or supposition that moves it from the place
o f the object o f “know” to the place of the subject. A secret is something
one knows or does not know. Here the poem capitalizes and personifies the
Secret and, by metonymy, shifts it from the place o f what is known to the
place o f the knower. The knower is thus represented as produced by a rhe
torical supposing or positing that makes the object o f knowledge (a secret)
into its subject (the Secret). The poem says that the secret knows but shows
that this is the performative product o f a rhetorical supposition.
Since Knapp wants to locate literary interest in analogies o f agency,
what would he say here? His claim would be that literary interest inheres in
the relation between the act that Frost is performing in this poem and the
acts represented. Is Frost knowing or supposing, dancing round or sitting
in the middle, and what difference does it make? Are the difficulties o f de
ciding what act Frost is performing illuminated by the difficulties o f sorting
out the relation between the acts o f the poem’s “we” and the acts o f the Se-
8.
Robert Frost,
The Complete Poems (New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1958), 495.
First published under the title “Ring Around” in Poetry, 1936, this poem acquired
its definitive title in Robert Frost, A Witness Tree (New York: Holt, 1942).
The
in Theory
29
cret? This poem would, I think, be a good example for Knapp’s approach,
though in insisting that we focus on analogies o f authorial agency, he has us
ask what Frost is doing rather than what the poem is doing. I am not con
vinced that this is helpful, much less necessary. It may be more pertinent
and productive to ask what the speaker or the poem is doing, and how that
relates to what is done in the poem, than to focus on what Frost is doing
and its relation to actions in the poem. But this may well be a separate is
sue. I do think that the problem o f literariness is sharpened and illuminated
by Knapp’s suggestion that a text has literary interest insofar as our interest
in it exceeds our interest in figuring out what the author intends.
Кларр seeks to reinterpret in terms o f agency the kind o f complex
ity o f structure that has generally been taken to characterize literariness.
He then proceeds to argue that although literature does indeed have the
distinctiveness that it has recently been denied, often on general politi
cal grounds (as an unwarranted, elitist privileging of certain modes o f dis
course), still, literature does not have the moral and political benefits that
those defending literature are wont to claim for it. He thus hopes, as in the
antitheory articles he wrote with Walter Benn Michaels, to succeed in pro
voking everyone, on both sides o f the question. But there are probably few
o f us left in theory who will be surprised or annoyed by the conclusion that
literature does not necessarily have moral and political benefits: arguments
for the disruptive and emancipatory value o f the avant-garde can always be
countered by claims about the normalizing and policing functions o f lit
erary scenarios. But Knapp’s example illustrates— albeit in an unusual tra
ditional mode— ^what has been the tendency in recent thinking about the
theory o f literature: to relate the defense o f the literary and the specificity
thereof not to questions o f the distinctiveness o f literary language nor to
the radical potential o f disruptions o f meanings but to the staging o f agen
cy on the one hand and to engagements with otherness on the other.^
9.
The range of theoretical writings treating literature’s relation to other
ness is considerable, from the work of Martha Nussbaum, cited below, which ar
ticulates the traditional view that literature is distinctive for its success in enabling
us to appreciate the situation of the other, to that of Jacques Derrida, which treats
literature as a response to the call of the other. See Derrida, “Psyche; Inventions of
the Other,” trans. Catherine Porter, in Reading de Man Reading, ed. Lindsay Wa
ters andWlad Godzich (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989); and,
for general discussion, Derek Attridge, “Innovation, Literature, Ethics: Relating
to the Other,” PMLA 119 Qan. 1999); and Derek Attridge, The Singularity o f Lit
erature (London: Routledge, 2004).
30
T H E O R Y
Knapp’s argument is that literary representations, which foreground
analogically complex representations o f agency, do not tell us how to act
but help us to discover what our evaluative dispositions are and enhance
our awareness o f the complex relations— perhaps relations o f contradic
tion— among our evaluative dispositions. An example he offers is Chinua
Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, where the colonial intervention into traditional
Ibo culture is presented simultaneously as a cruel act o f aggression and as
an answer to the often extreme injustices o f Ibo custom (the subordination
o f women; the exposure o f twins; the murder, if an oracle so commands,
o f an adopted child). For readers the novel may set up a clash between sets
of values readers hold. Reading the novel, Knapp writes, “a feminist anti
colonialist might discover that her negative response to patriarchal cus
toms far outweighed her commitment to preserving indigenous cultures
(or the reverse)”
{L I,
lo o -io i). If literature helps to make us self-conscious
agents, it does so by promoting thick description over simplifying princi
ple, so that potential conflicts o f vaille and principle may emerge. Knapp
cites Locke’s account o f freedom o f the liberal subject as the possibility o f
suspending decisions to examine carefully the alternatives and their values,
and he concludes that literary interest provides a model for the exercise of
liberal agency. “It isn’t,” he warns, “that literary interest makes someone
a better agent.” (He is not convinced that self-conscious agency is better
agency.) But it “does give an unusually pure experience o f what agency, for
better or worse, is like”
{L I,
103).
Agency involves a structure akin to what literary theory has called
“the concrete universal,” that special combination o f particularity and gen
erality that enables Hamlet, for instance, to be more than a merely actu
al person; Hamlet is embodied in particular details yet nevertheless open
and general in ways that actual persons are not. To understand myself as
agent is to see myself both in a concrete situation determined by my par
ticular past and yet able to consider alternative courses o f action by debat
ing what is appropriate for someone in my situation to do and thus to con
sider choices open to a certain type o f agent— a type o f which I am only
one possible example. Since the ideal o f full agency is that o f the fusion of
particularity and generality— that the determined particular which I am
would be able effectively to choose any o f the courses open to an agent— it
is no surprise that, as Knapp puts it, encountering literary interest “should
feel like glimpsing the ideal condition o f practical agency itself”
{LI,
140).
Such arguments go some way toward explaining the common intu
ition that the experience o f literature has a bearing on the act o f making
judgments. Literature offers, as others have often said, a kind o f mental
calisthenics, a practice that instructs in exercise o f agency. But if Knapp
explicitly denies that literary interest makes someone a better agent, oth
er critics and theorists have recently attempted to show why it should.
Martha Nussbaum, for instance, has stressed the potential role o f literary
representations in bringing us to exercise agency in the interests of jus
tice. In Poetic Justice: The Literary Imagination and Public Life she presents
the literary imagination, or, more specifically, literary representation and
the dealings with the kind o f representations that characterize the literary
imagination, as paradigms for the act o f judging, where action should be
based on as rich and comprehensive as possible an understanding o f the
situation and experiences o f the people and groups involved in the case.
There are two aspects to this argument, I believe. First, there is a
claim that readers are constituted by literary works as judges o f a certain
sort. The reading o f literature instances the model o f judicious spectator-
ship, where what qualifies the spectator to judge is, first, an ability vividly
to imagine what it is like to be the persons whose situation confronts the
reader engaged with the text and, second, a practice o f critical assessment.
The techniques o f literary narrative in particular work to constitute read
ers as observers who sympathize but who must in the end judge, deciding
how far characters’ self-understanding is exemplary or flawed, how far the
outcomes o f their stories are due to their own choices or to chance or to
social influences which they could not overcome.
In this way literature creates a model o f what Nussbaum calls “the
literary judge,” which she contrasts with other models o f the judge. C it
ing some legal opinions where a rich fabric o f narrative, reconstructing the
experience o f the people in question, shows the literary judge at work, she
contrasts these with, for instance. Supreme Court opinions in Bowers v.
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