Pravda’s twin publication Der Emes (Pravda in Yiddish) objected strongly: “Do they (i.e. Gorky
and Shalom Ash, the interviewer) really want for Jews to refuse to serve in any government
position? For them to get out of the way? That kind of decision could only be made by counter-
revolutionaries or cowards.”
In Jews in the Kremlin, the author, using the 1925 Annual Report of NKID, introduces
leading figures and positions in the central apparatus. “In the publishing arm there is not one
non-Jew” and further, with evident pride, the author examines the staff in the Soviet consulates
around the world and finds “there is not one country in the world where the Kremlin has not
placed a trusted Jew.”
If he was interested, the author of Alef could find no small number of Jews in the
Supreme Court of RSFSR of 1920s, in the Procurator’s office and RKI. Here we can find already
familiar A. Goikhbarg, who, after chairing the Lesser Sovnarcom, worked out the legal system
for the NEP era, supervised development of Civil Code of RSFSR and was director of the
Institute of Soviet Law.
It is much harder to examine lower, provincial level authorities, and not only because of
their lower exposure to the press but also due to their rapid fluidity, and frequent turnover of
cadres from post to post, from region to region. This amazing early Soviet shuffling of personnel
might have been caused either by an acute deficit of reliable men as in in the Lenin’s era or by
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mistrust (and the “tearing” of a functionary from the developed connections) in Stalin’s times.
Here are several such career trajectories.
Lev Maryasin was Secretary of Gubkom of Orel Guberniya, later – chair of Sovnarkhoz
of Tatar Republic, later – head of a department of CK of Ukraine, later – chair of board of
directors of Gosbank of USSR, and later – Deputy Narkom of Finances of USSR. Moris
Belotsky was head of Politotdel of the First Cavalry Army (a very powerful position),
participated in suppression of the Kronstadt Uprising, later – in NKID, then later – the First
Secretary of North Ossetian Obkom, and even later was First Secretary of CK of Kyrgyzstan.
A versatile functionary, Grigory Kaminsky was Secretary of Gubkom of Tula Guberniya,
later – Secretary of CK of Azerbaijan, later – chair of Kolkhozcenter, and later – Narkom of
Health Care Service.
Abram Kamensky was Narkom of State Control Commission of Donetsk-Krivoy Rog
Republic, later Deputy Narkom of Nationalities of RSFSR, later Secretary of Gubkom of
Donetsk, later served in Narkomat of Agriculture, then – director of Industrial Academy, and still
later he served in the Narkomat of Finances.
There were many Jewish leaders of the Komsomol.
The ascendant career of Efim Tzetlin began with the post of the First Chairman of CK
RKSM (fall of 1918); after the Civil War he become Secretary of CK and Moscow Committee of
RKSM, since 1922. He was a member of the executive committee of KIM (Young Communist
International), in 1923-24 a spy in Germany. Later he worked in Secretariat of Executive
Committee of Communist International, still later in the editorial office of Pravda, and even later
he was head of Bukharin’s secretariat, where this latter post eventually proved fatal for him.
The career of Isaiah Khurgin was truly amazing. In 1917 he was a member of Ukrainian
Rada [Parliament], served both in the Central and the Lesser chambers and worked on the draft
of legislation on Jewish autonomy in Ukraine. Since 1920 we see him as a member VKPb, in
1921 – he was the Trade Commissioner of Ukraine in Poland, in 1923 he represented German-
American Transport Society in USA, serving as a de facto Soviet plenipotentiary. He founded
and chaired Amtorg (American Trading Corporation). His future seemed incredibly bright but
alas at the age of 38 (in 1925) he was drowned in a lake in USA. What a life he had!
Let’s glance at the economy. Moses Rukhimovitch was Deputy Chair of Supreme Soviet
of the National Economy. Ruvim Levin was a member of Presidium of Gosplan (Ministry of
Economic Planning) of USSR and Chair of Gosplan of RSFSR (later – Deputy Narkom of
Finances of USSR).
Zakhary Katzenelenbaum was inventor of the governmental Loan for Industrialization in
1927 and, therefore, of all subsequent “loans”. He also was one of the founders of Soviet
Gosbank.
Moses Frumkin was Deputy Narkom of Foreign Trade from 1922 but in fact he was in
charge of the entire Narkomat. He and A. I. Vainstein were long-serving members of the panel of
Narkomat of Finances of USSR.
Vladimirov-Sheinfinkel was Narkom of Provand of Ukraine, later – Narkom of
Agriculture of Ukraine, and even later he served as Narkom of Finances of RSFSR and Deputy
Narkom of Finances of USSR.
If you are building a mill, you are responsible for possible flood. A newspaper article by
Z. Zangvil describes a celebratory jubilee meeting of the Gosbank board of directors in 1927,
five years after introduction of chervonets [a former currency of the Russian Empire and Soviet
Union] and explains the importance of chervonets and displays a group photograph. The article
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lauds Sheinman, the chairman of the board, and Katzenelenbaum, a member of the board.
Sheinman’s signature was reproduced on every Soviet chervonets and he simultaneously held the
post of Narkom of Domestic Commerce (from 1924). And hold your breath, my reader! He
didn’t return from a foreign visit in 1929! He preferred to live in bloody capitalism!
Speaking of mid-level Soviet institutions, the well-known economist and professor B. D.
Brutskus asks: “Did not the revolution open up new opportunities for the Jewish population?
Among these opportunities would be government service. The large numbers of Jews in
government are obvious, particularly in higher posts,” and “most of the Jewish government
employees come from the higher classes, not the Jewish masses.” He maintained “there are many
Jewish public servants particularly in the commissariats devoted to economic functions.”
But upperclass Jews required to serve the Soviet government did not gain, but lost in
comparison with what they would have had in their own businesses or freely pursuing
professions. As well, those who moved through the Soviet hierarchy had to display the utmost of
tact to avoid arousing jealousy and dissatisfaction. A large number of Jewish public servants,
regardless of talent and qualities, would not lessen anti-Semitism, but would strengthen it among
other workers and among the intelligentsia. Larin put it more simply: “The Jewish intelligentsia
in large numbers served the victorious revolution readily, realizing access to previously denied
government service.”
G. Pomerantz, speaking 50 years later justified this: “History dragged Jews into the
government apparatus. Jews had nowhere else to go besides to government institutions,”
including apparently the Cheka, as we commented earlier. The Bolsheviks also had no other
place to go – the Jewish Tribune from Paris explains “there were so many Jews in various Soviet
functions because of the need for literate, sober bureaucrats.”
However one can read in Jewish World, a Parisian publication, that “There is no denying
that a large percentage of Jewish youth from lower social elements — some completely hopeless
failures, were drawn to Bolshevism by the sudden prospect of power; for others it was the world
proletarian revolution and for still others it was a mixture of adventurous idealism and practical
utilitarianism.”
Of course not all were drawn to Bolshevism. There were large numbers of peaceful Jews
whom the revolution crushed. However, the life in the towns of the former Pale of Settlement
was not visible to ordinary non-Jewish person. Instead the average person saw, as described by
M. Heifetz, “arrogant, self-confident and self-satisfied adult Jews at ease on Red holidays and
Red weddings … We now sit where Czars and generals once sat, and they sit beneath us”. These
were not unwaveringly ideological Bolsheviks. The invitation to power was extended to millions
of residents from rotting shtetls, to pawn brokers, tavern owners, contrabandists, seltzer-water
salesmen and those who sharpened their wills in the fight for survival and their minds in evening
study of the Torah and the Talmud. The authorities invited them to Moscow, Petrograd and Kiev
to take into their quick nervous hands that which was falling from the soft, pampered hands of
the hereditary intelligentsia—everything from the finances of a great power to nuclear physics
and the secret police.
They couldn’t resist the temptation of Esau, the less so since, in addition to a bowl of
pottage, they were offered the chance to build the promised land, that is, communism. There was
a Jewish illusion that this was their country.
Many Jews did not enter the whirlwind of revolution and didn’t automatically join the
Bolsheviks, but the general national inclination was one of sympathy for the Bolshevik cause and
a feeling that life would now be incomparably better. The majority of Jews met the revolution,
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not with fear, but with welcome arms. In the early Twenties the Jews of Byelorussia and Ukraine
were a significant source of support for the centralization of power in Moscow over and against
the influence of regional power. Evidence of Jewish attitudes in 1923 showed the overwhelming
majority considered Bolshevism to be a lesser evil and that if the Bolsheviks lost power it would
be worse for them.
Now, a Jew can command an army. These gifts alone were enough to bring Jewish
support for the communists. The disorder of the Bolshevism seemed like a brilliant victory for
justice and no one noticed the complete suppression of freedom. Large number of Jews who did
not leave after the revolution failed to foresee the bloodthirstiness of the new government,
though the persecution, even of socialists, was well underway. The Soviet government was as
unjust and cruel then as it was to be in ‘37 and in 1950. But in the Twenties the bloodlust did not
raise alarm or resistance in the wider Jewish population since its force was aimed not at Jewry.
* * *
When Leskov, in a report for the Palensky Commission [a pre-revolution government
commission] one by one refuted all the presumed consequences for Russians from the removal of
restrictions on Jewish settlement in Russia he couldn’t have foreseen the great degree to which
Jews would be participating in governing the country and the economy in the Twenties. The
revolution changed the entire course of events and we don’t know how things would have
developed without it.
When in 1920, Solomon Luria [aka Lurie], a professor of ancient history in Petrograd,
found that in Soviet, internationalist and communist Russia anti-Semitism was again on the rise,
he was not surprised. On the contrary, events substantiated the correctness of his earlier
conclusion that the cause of anti-Semitism lies with the Jews themselves and currently with or in
spite of the complete absence of legal restrictions on Jews, anti-Semitism had erupted with a new
strength and reached a pitch that could never have been imagined in the old régime.
Russian (more precisely Little Russian) anti-Semitism of past centuries and the early 20th
century was blown away with its seeds by the winds of the October revolution. Those who joined
the Union of the Russian People, those who marched with their religious standards to smash
Jewish shops, those who demanded the execution of Beilis, those who defended the royal throne,
the urban middle class and those who were with them or who resembled them or who were
suspected to be like them were rounded up by the thousands and shot or imprisoned.
Among Russian workers and peasants there was no anti-Semitism before the revolution –
this is attested to by leaders of the revolution themselves. The Russian intelligentsia was actively
sympathetic to the cause of the oppressed Jews and children of the post-revolution years were
raised only in the internationalist spirit.
So stripped of any strength, discredited and crushed completely, where did anti-Semitism come
from?
We already described how surprising it was for Jewish-Russian émigrés to learn that anti-
Semitism had not died. They followed the phenomenon in writings of socialists E.D. Kuskova
and S.S. Maslov, who came from Russia in 1922. In an article in the Jewish Tribune, Kuskova
states that anti-Semitism in the USSR is not a figment of the imagination and that “in Russia,
Bolshevism is now blending with Judaism — this cannot be doubted.” She even met highly
cultured Jews who were anti-Semites of the new Soviet type. A Jewish doctor told her: “Jewish
Bolshevik administrators ruined the excellent relations he had with the local population.” A
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teacher said “children tell me that I teach in a Jewish school” because we have “forbidden the
teaching of the Ten Commandments and driven off the priest. There are only Jews in the
Narkomat of Education. In high school circles (from radical families) there is talk about the
predominance of the Jews.
“Young people, in general are more anti-Semitic than the older generation… and one
hears everywhere ‘they showed their true colors and tortured us.’ Russian life is full of this stuff
today. But if you ask me who they are, these anti-Semites, they are most of society. So
widespread is this thinking that the political administration distributed a proclamation explaining
why there are so many Jews in it: ‘When the Russian proletariat needed its own new
intelligentsia, mid-level intelligentsia, technical workers and administrative workers, not
surprisingly, Jews, who, before had been in the opposition, came forward to meet them… the
occupation by Jews of administrative posts in the new Russia is historically inevitable and would
have been the natural outcome, regardless of whether the new Russia had become KD
(Constitutional Democrat), SR (Socialist Revolutionary) or proletarian. Any problems with
having Aaron Moiseevich Tankelevich sitting in the place of Ivan Petrovich Ivanov need to be
‘cured’.”
Kuskova parries “in a Constitutional Democratic or SR Russia many administrative posts
would have been occupied by Jews, but neither the Kadets nor SR’s would have forbidden
teaching the Ten Commandments and wouldn’t have chopped off heads. Stop Tankelevich from
doing evil and there will be no microbe of anti-Semitism.”
The Jewish émigré community was chilled by Maslov’s findings. Here was a tested SR
with an unassailable reputation who lived through the first four years of Soviet power.
“Judæphobia is everywhere in Russia today. It has swept areas where Jews were never before
seen and where the Jewish question never occurred to anyone. The same hatred for Jews is found
in Vologda, Archangel, in the towns of Siberia and the Urals.” He recounts several episodes
affecting the perception of the simple Russian peasants such as the Tyumen Produce Commissar
Indenbaum’s order to shear sheep for the second time in the season, “because the Republic needs
wool.” (This was prior to collectivization, no less; these actions of this commissar caused the
Ishim peasant uprising.)
The problem arose because it was late in the fall and the sheep would die without their
coats from the coming winter cold. Maslov does not name the commissars who ordered the
planting of millet and fried sun-flower seeds or issued a prohibition on planting malt, but one can
conclude they did not come from ordinary Russian folk or from the Russian aristocracy or from
yesterday’s men. From all this, the peasantry could only conclude that the power over them was
Jewish. So too did the workers. Several workers’ resolutions from the Urals in February and
March of 1921 sent to the Kremlin complained with outrage of the dominance of the Jews in
central and local government. The intelligentsia, of course did not think that Soviet power was
Jewish, but it noted the vastly disproportionate role of Jews in authority when compared to their
numbers in the population.
And if a Jew approaches a group of non-Jews who are freely discussing Soviet reality,
they almost always change the topic of conversation even if the new arrival is a personal
acquaintance.
Maslov tries to understand the cause of the widespread and bitter hatred of Jews in
modern Russia and it seems to him to be the identification throughout society of Soviet power
and Jewish power. “The expression ‘Yid Power’ is often used in Russia and particularly in
Ukraine and in the former Pale of Settlement not as a polemic, but as a completely objective
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definition of power, its content and its politics. Soviet power in the first place answers the wishes
and interests of Jews and they are its ardent supporters, and in the second place, power resides in
Jewish hands.”
Among the causes of Judæphobia Maslov notes the “tightly welded ethnic cohesion they
have formed as a result of their difficult thousands year-old history. This is particularly
noticeable when it comes to selecting staff at institutions – if the selection process is in the hands
of Jews, you can bet that the entire staff of responsible positions will go to Jews, even if it means
removing the existing staff. And often that preference for their own is displayed in a sharp,
discourteous manner which is offensive to others. In the Jewish bureaucrat, Soviet power
manifests more obviously its negative features… the intoxicating wine of power is stronger for
Jews and goes to their head… I don’t know where this comes from.” Perhaps because of the low
cultural level of the former pharmacists and shopkeepers. Maybe from living earlier without full
civil rights?
The Parisian Zionist journal Sunrise wrote in 1922 that Gorky essentially said that the
growth of anti-Semitism is aided by the tactless behavior of the Jewish Bolsheviks themselves in
many situations.
That is the blessed truth!
And Gorky wasn’t speaking of Trotsky, Zinoviev and Kamenev – he was speaking of the
typical Jewish communist who occupies a position in the collegia, presidia and petty and mid-
level Soviet institutions where he comes into contact with large swaths of the population. Such
individuals occupy leading front-line positions which naturally multiplies their number in the
mind of the public.
D. Pasmanik comments: “We must admit that many Jews through their own actions
provoke acute anti-Semitism… all the impudent Jews filling the communist ranks, these
pharmacists, shopkeepers, peddlers, dropouts and pseudo intellectuals are indeed causing much
evil to Russia and Jewry. Hardly ever before inside of Russia or outside of Russia have Jews
been the subject of such an active and concentrated hostility. It has never reached such an
intensity nor been so widespread. This elemental hostility has been fed by the open and
undeniable participation of Jews in destructive processes underway in Europe as well as by the
tales and exaggerations about such participation. A terrible anti-Semitic mood is taking hold, fed
exclusively by Bolshevism which continues to be identified with Jewry.”
In 1927 Mikhail Kozakov (shot in 1930 after the Food Workers’ Trial) wrote in a private
letter to his brother overseas about the “Judæphobic mood of the masses (among non-party and
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