Denmark, Norway, Sweden and The Netherlands v Greece
(
Greek
case)
(1969) 12 ECHR Yearbook 134.
39
D McGoldrick,
The Human Rights Committee,
1994, Oxford: Clarendon, pp 202–04.
40
See C Gray,
International Law and the Use of Force,
2000, Oxford: OUR
International Criminal Law
12
international peace and security in the region.
41
Sanctions can also be imposed by
regional organisations and this is usually decided and executed in co-operation, or in
execution of, relevant Security Council resolutions.
42
Finally, recalcitrant States may
also suffer adverse consequences on the basis of particular treaty regimes and the
obligations contained therein.
43
Inevitably, all the aforementioned means relating to
measures against States, as part of the ICL process, are premised on political
considerations as to whether a judicial or other confrontational avenue should be
followed, except where this involves individual claimants.
1.5
STATE ‘CRIMINALITY’
The notion of ‘criminality’ essentially refers to liability of a criminal nature. Liability
itself is based on the attribution of a criminal offence to a particular individual.
Criminal liability in both national and international law is generally attributed to
natural persons, and, exceptionally, also to other legal entities, as was the case with
several Nazi-related organisations after the Second World War. Even so, it was not
the legal person that was deemed to be liable; rather, it was individual membership
that constituted the particular criminal offence. It is, therefore, evident that any
discussion of liability that does not involve any natural persons as perpetrators is
devoid of a criminal nature, but not necessarily a civil one.
All crimes are committed by natural persons and it seems self-evident that personal
culpability should somehow follow. Personal attribution, however, that will
eventually materialise into criminal liability is a complex exercise in the international
legal system. The majority of international offences are committed by individuals
acting under the guise of or on behalf of State orchestrated policies, whether overtly
or clandestinely. The policy of apartheid in South Africa, the genocides against Jews,
Armenians and Tutsi, as well as cases of State sponsored terrorism (for example,
Libyan involvement in the
Lockerbie
case)
44
are just some instances where an
international offence originates from the highest echelons of a State apparatus and
is, subsequently, executed by its subordinate organs or agents. Leaving aside the
issue of personal immunity for acts perpetrated by or on behalf of the State,
45
is there
any room for the State itself to be viewed as having committed a criminal act, and if
so, is this a worthwhile exercise? Until August 2000, this notion, even though
progressive, was entertained although not wholly accepted by the international
community. Then draft Art 19 of the International Law Commission’s (ILC) Draft
Articles on State Responsibility distinguished between international ‘crimes’ and
‘delicts’. In accordance with Art 19(2), an international crime resulted ‘from the breach
by a State of an international obligation so essential for the protection of fundamental
41
SC Res 678 (29 November 1990).
42
European Union implementation of petroleum embargo, 1999 OJ L108/1; freezing of Yugoslav funds
abroad and bar of future investment in Serbia, Council Regulation 1294/ 1999, 1999 OJ L153/63 and
Council Decision 1999/424/CFSP, 1999 OJ L163/86, 26 June 1999.
43
See ICC Statute, Art 87(7).
44
See Chapter 2.
45
See Chapter 7.
Chapter 1: Theory of International Criminal Law
13
interests of the international community that its breach is recognised as a crime by
that community as a whole’. Any other breach falling below this standard was
classified as an international delict. The formulation found in draft Art 19, however,
was not universally acceptable and was possibly unnecessary. Nonetheless, the idea
that there do exist obligations owed to the international community as a whole and
that serious breaches should attract special consequences was never doubted.
46
In August 2000, the ILC, prompted also by its new rapporteur, James Crawford,
decided to delete draft Art 19, as well as any reference to the word ‘crime’, from the
text. TheArticles no longer differentiate between criminal and delictual responsibility,
viewing, instead, a State’s internationally wrongful acts as forming a single category
of violations. While, as explained, the problematic notion of ‘international State crime’
was deleted, it was recognised that a State may be liable for acts breaching peremptory
norms
(jus cogens),
as well as obligations owed to the international community as a
whole
(erga omnes)
.
State responsibility in no way precludes individual responsibility, but, if the ILC
Articles are to have any real significance, it is imperative that additional consequences
flow from the serious breach of community obligations. In its last reading, the
Commission favoured the idea of proportionate damages in accordance with the
gravity of the offence. Such damages would be sought by the victim State, or in the
absence of such a State, by any other State acting on behalf of and in the interests of
the individual victims of the breach.
47
Moreover, the Commission’s draft endorses,
under strict circumstances, the possibility of countermeasures. Article 54 constitutes
a compromisory balance between the reservations about collective countermeasures
and the revulsion against turning a blind eye to gross breaches, especially human
rights breaches.
48
This provision limits such countermeasures to those which are
taken in response to serious and manifest breaches of obligations to the international
community, and obliges participating States to co-operate in order to ensure that the
principle of proportionality is observed.
49
Although the debate on the international criminality of States seems to have ended
as far as the ILC is concerned, many still argue that the regime contained in former
draft Art 19 answers an indisputable need, pointing out, however, that it was the
legal regimes of the envisaged crimes that were debatable.
50
The new regime
contained in the adopted Articles strikes a right balance between the need to
formulate a realistic framework for enforcement of
jus cogens
and
erga omnes
obligations, while at the same time rendering the text more accessible to States that
would otherwise have objections to the definitional uncertainty and scope of draft
Art 19.
46
J Crawford, ‘Revising the Draft Articles on State Responsibility’, 10
EJIL
(1999), 435.
47
J Crawford
et al, ‘
The ILC’s Draft Articles on State Responsibility: Toward Completion of a Second
Reading’, 94
AJIL
(2000), 660, p 673.
48
See C Antonopoulos,
The Unilateral Use of Force by States in International Law,
1997, Athens: Sakkoulas.
49
Op cit,
Crawford
et al,
note 47, p 674.
50
A Pellet, ‘Can a State Commit a Crime? Definitely, Yes!’, 10
EJIL
(1999), 425.
International Criminal Law
14
1.6
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW AND HUMAN RIGHTS
Bassiouni convincingly argues that the last stage in the development of a rights regime
is the ‘criminalisation’ stage.
51
It is there that the shared values contained in that
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