13.3.1 Grave breaches of the 1949 Geneva Conventions
The
jus in bello
has conventionally been categorised as ‘Geneva’ law, that is,
international humanitarian, and ‘Hague’ law, which is concerned with the regulation
of the means and methods of warfare. International humanitarian law is itself
concerned with the protection of victims of armed conflict, which includes those
rendered
hors de combat
by injury, sickness or capture, as well as civilians. This division
is purely artificial and there is a wide measure of overlap between the two.
58
For the
purposes of ICTY jurisdiction, international humanitarian law is contained
principally in the four 1949 Geneva Conventions. The Geneva Conventions recognise
two types of violations, in accordance with the gravity of the condemned act, namely,
‘grave breaches’
59
and other prohibited acts not falling within the definition of grave
breaches. Although both grave breaches and all other infractions of the Conventions
are outlawed under international humanitarian law, the distinguishing feature of
grave breaches is that they can only be committed in international armed conflicts
against protected persons or property as designated by the Conventions and are
moreover subject to universal jurisdiction.
60
According to the
Tadic
appeals jurisdiction decision an armed conflict exists where
there is ‘resort to armed force between States or protracted armed violence between
governmental authorities and organised groups or between such groups within a
State’.
61
The Appeals Chamber further affirmed that the temporal and geographical
scope of an armed conflict extends beyond the exact time and place of hostilities.
62
This means that, although actual fighting may not be taking place in certain parts of
a territory plagued by war, any breaches committed in these locations against
protected persons or property may warrant the application of humanitarian law if
the breaches are connected in some way to the armed conflict.
An armed conflict may be classified as being international in nature when armed
force is resorted to between two or more States, when a State directly intervenes
militarily in a non-international armed conflict on the side of either party, or when a
State exercises ‘overall control’ over a rebel entity as to justify attributing its actions to
57
ICTY Statute, Art 7(3); ICTR Statute, Art 6(3).
58
H McCoubrey,
International Humanitarian Law: The Regulation of Armed Conflicts,
1990, Aldershot:
Dartmouth, pp 1–2.
59
Convention I, Art 50; Convention II, Art 51; Convention III, Art 130; Convention IV, Art 147.
60
1977 Protocol I added new ‘grave breaches’ to the list of the 1949 Geneva Conventions and further
introduced a new set of such breaches, namely those violations against the laws of warfare; C Van
den Wyngaert, ‘The Suppression of War Crimes under Additional Protocol I’, in AJM Delissen and
GJ Tanja (eds),
Humanitarian Law of Armed Conflict,
1991, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, p 197.
61
Tadic
appeals jurisdiction decision (2 October 1995), para 70.
62
Ibid,
para 67.
Chapter 13: The International Criminal Tribunals for Yugoslavia and Rwanda 349
the controlling State. The Appeals Chamber in its judgment in the
Tadic
case rebuffed
the ‘effective control’ test propounded by the International Court of Justice in the
Nicaragua
case, which held that organised private individuals whose action is co-
ordinated or supervised by a foreign State and to whom specific instructions are issued
are considered
de facto
organs of the controlling State. Although this test had found
application by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) to ‘Unilaterally Controlled Latino
Assets’ who were non-US nationals, but acting while in the pay of the US, on direct
instructions and under US military or intelligence supervision to carry out specific
tasks, it was not applied to the contras because they had not received any instructions.
63
The ICTY Appeals Chamber held that the ICJ’s ‘effective control’ test was at variance
with both judicial and State practice, and could only apply with regard to individuals
or unorganised groups of individuals acting on behalf of third States, but was generally
inapplicable to military or paramilitary groups.
64
The ICTY’s departure from the
stringent ‘effective control’ test was duly replaced with an ‘overall control test’ which
simply requires co-ordinating or helping in a group’s general military planning, besides
equipping or possibly financing the group, in order to establish a relationship of agency
between the group and the aiding State.
65
Thus, in overturning the much criticised
Trial Chamber’s judgment which had found the Bosnian Serb Army (VRS) not to be
an agent of FRY,
66
the Appeals Chamber held the VRS to constitute a military
organisation under the overall control of the FRY, finding the latter not only to have
equipped and financed the VRS, but to have also participated in the planning and
supervision of its military operations.
67
Until the
Tadic
appeals judgment in 1999, the
various ICTY Chambers had, as a direct result of interpreting the test propounded in
the
Nicaragua
judgment differently in each case, reached inconsistent determinations
of the nature of the Bosnian armed conflicts. The ‘overall control’ test, correct on its
merits,seemstohavesetaprecedentandisnowacceptedasgoodlawbyICTYChambers
in their evaluation of both FRY and Croat intervention on behalf of rebel entities.
68
As already observed, the ‘grave breaches’ provisions are applicable where the
victims are defined as ‘protected persons’ under the relevant Geneva Convention.
For the purposes of the present discussion civilian populations during the Yugoslav
conflicts were made the target of attacks with a view to either being exterminated or
expelled. Article 4 of Geneva Convention IV provides that protected persons are
those belonging to another party to the conflict. When this provision was drafted in
1949, it did not envisage the transformation and unprecedented eruption of internal
or mixed armed conflicts in their contemporary form, and its purpose was to protect
civilian persons held by the adversary, these being in their majority enemy nationals.
The concept of nationality, belying a formal legal bond between an individual and a
State, would not serve the protective function of Geneva Convention IV as both
victims and attackers possessed the same nationality, even though the ensuing conflict
63
Prosecutor v Tadic,
Appeals Judgment (15 July 1999) (
Tadic
appeals judgment), paras 109, 114.
64
Ibid,
para 124.
65
Ibid,
para 131.
66
T Meron, ‘Classification of Armed Conflicts in the Former Yugoslavia: Nicaragua’s Fallout’,
92
AJIL
(1998), 236.
67
Tadic
appeals judgment (15 July 1999), para 131.
68
Prosecutor v Aleksovski,
Appeals Judgment (24 March 2000), Case No IT-95–14/1-A, para 145;
Prosecutor
v Blaskic,
Judgment (
Blaskic
judgment) (3 March 2000), Case No IT-95–14-T, para 100.
International Criminal Law
350
was in most part international in character. The
Tadic
appeals judgment correctly
observed that since 1949 the legal bond of nationality has not been regarded as crucial
in determining protected person status, further adding that, in the particular case of
the former Yugoslavia, it was ‘allegiance’ to a party or ‘control’ over persons by a
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