Лекции по теоретической грамматике английского языка для студентов

4. The Particle 
Particles usually refer to the word (or, sometimes, phrase) immediately 
following and give special prominence to the notion expressed by this word (or 
phrase), or single it out in some other way, depending on the meaning of the 
particle. 
The question of the place of a particle in sentence structure remains 
unsolved. The following three solutions are possible:
(1) a particle is a separate secondary member of the sentence, which should 
be given a special name;
(2) a particle is an element in the part of the sentence which is formed by the 
word (or phrase) to which the particle refers (thus the particle may be an element 
of the subject, predicate, object, etc.);
(3) a particle neither makes up a special part of the sentence, nor is it an 
element in any part of the sentence; it stands outside the structure of the sentence 
and must be neglected when analysis of a sentence is given. 
Each of these three views entails some difficulties and none of them can be 
proved to be the correct one, so that the decision remains arbitrary. 
5. The Interjection 
Interjections have for a long time been an object of controversy. There has 
been some doubt whether they are words of a definite language in the same sense 
that nouns, verbs, etc. are, and whether they are not rather involuntary outcries, not 
restricted to any given language but common to all human beings as biological 
phenomena are. 
Modern scholars consider interjections part of the word stock of a language 
as much as other types of words. Interjections belonging to a certain language may 
contain sounds foreign to other languages. Thus, for instance, the Russian 

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interjection 
ax
contains the consonant phoneme [x], which is not found in English, 
etc. 
Semantic features 
The characteristic features which distinguish interjections from practically 
all other words lie in a different sphere. The interjections, as distinct from nouns, 
verbs, prepositions, etc., are not names of anything, but expressions of emotions. 
Another characteristic feature of the meaning of interjections is, that while 
some of them express quite definite meanings (for instance, 
alas
can never express 
the feeling of joy), other interjections seem to express merely feeling in general, 
without being attached to some particular feeling. The interjection 
oh
, for example, 
may be used both when the speaker feels surprised and when he feels joyous, or 
disappointed, or frightened, etc. The meaning of the interjection itself is thus very 
vague. 
Syntactic features 
On the sentence level the function of interjections is a controversial matter. 
The usual interpretation is that the interjection stands outside the structure of the 
sentence. Another view is that it is syntactically a kind of parenthesis at least in 
some cases. The controversy cannot be decided by objective investigation and the 
answer only depends on what we mean by sentence structure on the one hand, and 
by some element or other being outside the sentence structure, on the other.