setting, certain behaviors induced by present-biased preferences are inconsistent
with any time-consistent preferences. Hence, we illustrate that smoking guns need
not involve external commitment devices. Furthermore, while previous literature
has focused on smoking guns for sophisticated people, we show that smoking
guns exist for naive people as well.
Although many of the specific results described above are special to our one-
activity model, these results illustrate some more general intuitions. To begin the
process of generalizing our model, in section 6 we present an extension where,
rather than being performed exactly once, the activity must be performed more
than once during some length of time. In section 7, we discuss more broadly (and
less formally) what our model suggests about general implications of self-control
problems, and describe how some of these implications might play out in specific
economic contexts, such as saving and addiction. We then conclude with a dis-
cussion of some lessons to take away from our analysis, both for why it is impor-
tant that economists start to study self-control problems, and for how we should
go about doing so.
1.
Present-Biased Preferences
Let
u
t
be a person’s
instantaneous utility
in period
t
. A person in period
t
cares not
only about her present instantaneous utility, but also about her future instantaneous
utilities. We let
U
t
(
u
t
, u
t
1
1
, . . . ,
u
T
) represent a person’s
intertemporal prefer-
ences
from the perspective of period
t
, where
U
t
is continuous and increasing in
all components.
6
The standard simple model employed by economists is exponen-
tial discounting: For all
where
d
P
(0,1] is a
“discount factor.”
Exponential discounting parsimoniously captures the fact that people are impa-
tient. Yet exponential discounting is more than an innocuous simplification of a more
general class of preferences, since it implies that preferences are
time-consistent
: A
person’s relative preference for well-being at an earlier date over a later date is the
same no matter when she is asked. But intertemporal preferences are not time-
consistent. People tend to exhibit a specific type of time-inconsistent preferences
that we call
present-biased preferences
: When considering trade-offs between
two future moments, present-biased preferences give stronger relative weight to
the earlier moment as it gets closer.
7
t U u u
u
u
t
t
t
T
t
T
T
,
( ,
, . . . ,
)
,
+
=
1
;
Σ
τ
τ
δ
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