Folk defining in monolingual English learners’ dictionaries



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InternationalJournalofLexicographyTheCambridgeWorldHistoryofLexicographyConsidineEd.2019GPR090221 MG

Mubawwab
(onomasiological) and the 
Muğannas
(semasiological). The former compilations 
are approached from the perspective of ‘strange usages’ (pp. 163–164), proverbs (pp. 164–165), 
specialised semantic fields (p. 165), Arabised words (pp. 165–166), solecisms (p. 166), 
semantic phenomena (pp. 166–168), particles and letters (pp. 168–169), morphological patterns 
(pp. 169–170), and multi-thematic works (p. 170). On the other hand, in the study of—typically 
unspecialised—
Muğannas
, the author focuses on commonalities such as orthographic criteria 
or the use of the rhyme system, after which a chronologically sorted list is provided that contains 
the fifteen ‘most important extant 
muğannas
’ (e.g. 
Kitāb al-‘Ayn

Kitāb al-Ğīm
), as well as their 
respective characteristics (pp. 174–179). On the other hand, in ‘Hebrew to c. 1650,’ Aharon 
Maman underscores the role of glossaries and (early) dictionaries as ‘reference books for the 
study of the Bible before the exegesis genre was developed’ (p. 185). It is also mentioned that 
Hebrew glossaries ‘were usually bilingual, the language of the definitions depending on the 



spoken language of the author and his audience’ (p. 185; e.g. 
Alfāẓ alMishna
, which includes 
explanations in Arabic). Rav Saadia Gaon’s works are mentioned as some of the first 
‘systematic dictionaries’ (p. 186–187). His 
Egron
is typically regarded as the first Hebrew 
dictionary, the main purpose thereof being that of convincing poets to ‘use biblical words and 
forms, with an emphasis on the rarer ones’ (pp. 186–187). Works by later lexicographers (e.g. 
Menaḥem, Alfāsi, Ibn Janāḥ, Hanaguid) are also mentioned with great detail regarding their 
purpose and structure/content characteristics in connection with earlier works (esp. Saadia’s). 
Though less prevalent, post-biblical Hebrew dictionaries are also briefly referenced in this 
chapter, whose last sections are dedicated, respectively, to the ‘lexicography of grammar, 
rhymes, homonyms, and synonyms’ (pp. 196–198), ‘definitions and their language’ (pp. 198), 
‘etymology and comparative Semitic philology’ (pp. 198–199), and the ‘arrangement of entries’ 
(pp. 200–201). 
In ‘The Turkic Languages and Persian to c. 1700,’ Marek Stachowski deploys a 
carefully arranged diachronic account of the Persian and Turkic dictionaries, starting from the 
beginnings of Persian lexicography (pp. 223–224) and later focusing on the potentially relevant 
influence of the Arabic lexicographic tradition (pp. 230–232), as well as the presence of Persian 
lexicography in India (pp. 232–234) and Europe (pp. 234–236). An insightful section is found 
in the multicriteria comparison (in terms of, e.g., aim and target, type of dictionary, or 
continuation) which the author establishes between two of the earliest dictionaries in the Persian 
and Turkic traditions, respectively—that by Asadī T̤ūsī and the one by Maḥmūd al-Kāšġarī, 
both from the eleventh century. The final sections of this chapter are dedicated to Turkic 
lexicography, starting with the Codex Comanicus (pp. 236–237), other Turkic and Ottoman 
Turkish dictionaries (pp. 238–242), Ottoman Turkish transcription dictionaries (pp. 242–244), 
and Meninski’s 
Thesaurus
(pp. 244–246). 
Within the late and medieval heritage of the Greco-Roman world, Stefano Valente’s 
‘Byzantine Greek’ provides an interesting ‘journey over the thousand years of history of 
Byzantine Greek lexicography’ (p. 265), which appears to have been intrinsically intertwined 
with the—oftentimes scholarly—understanding of biblical and literary texts by pagan authors. 
Lexicographical techniques and goals seem to undergo thorough revision in comparison with 
the classical standards, even as ‘preservation and diffusion of the knowledge of the past [as 
opposed to originality]’ remain the top priorities. Typologically speaking, one can find what 
the author designates as ‘general lexica’ (pp. 249–255), ‘etymologica’ (pp. 255–260), and the 
more classically inspired Atticist lexicography. In the Latin sphere, in the chapter entitled 
‘Medieval Latin Christendom,’ John Considine establishes a differentiation between Latin 
‘early glossaries’ (e.g. 
Liber glossarum

Glossarium Salomonis
) and ‘later dictionaries’ (e.g. 
Elementarium

Panormia
/
Liber derivationum
), as he provides valuable in-context examples 
therefrom. Considine indicates that some of the ancient lexicographical texts ‘continued to be 
read and copied in and beyond late antiquity’ (p. 268). However, not all the early glossaries 
originated ‘exclusively in the glossing of texts, for they might draw on ancient lexical 
collections such as the 
Hermeneumata
wordlists and the 
Expositio notarum
’ (p. 270). Considine 
also touches on the fact that—as is commonplace in other civilisations—a number of glosses 
relied on bilingualism for clarity purposes (e.g. Latin-vernacular, Latin-Celtic languages, Latin-
Germanic languages). In ‘Early Modern Western and Central Europe,’ Considine provides a 
carefully knitted continuation to earlier chapters, as he focuses on the modern emergence of 
Latin-Greek, Latin-Romance, and Latin-Germanic lexicographic works. Partly based on 
Renaissance postulates, the focus is set on classical Latin and Greek rather than their late or 
medieval counterparts, as shown by the 1530s 
Linguae Latinae thesaurus
and, to a lesser extent, 
Calepino’s 
Dictionarium
(1502). Throughout this time, theology continues to play a role in the 
development and dissemination of lexicographic works, as do pedagogical purposes—



specifically in connection with language learning (e.g. 1611 
Janua linguarum
, an introduction 
to Latin which targeted Spanish speakers; 
Thesaurus Graecae linguae
). Multilingual pieces 
appear to become increasingly prevalent, with virtually any combination of languages being 
potentially encounterable. This holds especially true in the case of Romance languages, to 
whose speakers Latin had been gradually becoming a foreign language (e.g., Nebrija’s 1495 
Spanish-Latin dictionary, commonly regarded as ‘the first Renaissance dictionary of a 
European vernacular’; Franciosini’s 1620 
Vocabolario italiano e spagnolo
). Germanic 
languages also appear to play a visible role in multilingual dictionaries (pp. 306–312). 
2.3. 

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